We acknowledge Ji&#345;&#237; Macas (Biology Centre CAS, &#268;esk&#233; Bud&#283;jovice, Czech Republic) for providing the agrobacterial strain. The Core Facility Plants Sciences of CEITEC MU is acknowledged for its technical support. This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic with the European Regional Development Fund-Project &#34;SINGING PLANT&#34; (no. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_026/0008446) and the INTER-COST project LTC20004.

Agrobacterium-Mediated Hairy Root Induction and Regeneration in Plants

<ol>
	<li>Lee, L. Y., Gelvin, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=T-DNA+binary+vectors+and+systems.">T-DNA binary vectors and systems.</a> Plant Physiology. 146 (2), 325-332 (2008).</li><li>Christey, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+Ri-mediated+transformation+for+production+of+transgenic+plants.">Use of Ri-mediated transformation for production of transgenic plants.</a> In Vitro Cellular &amp; Developmental Biology - Plant. 37 (6), 687-700 (2001).</li><li>Gelvin, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Agrobacterium-Mediated+Plant+Transformation:+the+Biology+behind+the+&#8220;Gene-Jockeying&#8221;+Tool.">Agrobacterium-Mediated Plant Transformation: the Biology behind the &#8220;Gene-Jockeying&#8221; Tool.</a> Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 67 (1), 16-37 (2003).</li><li>Georgiev, M. I., Agostini, E., Ludwig-M&#252;ller, J., Xu, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetically+transformed+roots:+from+plant+disease+to+biotechnological+resource.">Genetically transformed roots: from plant disease to biotechnological resource.</a> Trends in Biotechnology. 30 (10), 528-537 (2012).</li><li>Gutierrez-Valdes, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hairy+root+cultures&#8212;a+versatile+tool+with+multiple+applications.">Hairy root cultures&#8212;a versatile tool with multiple applications.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 11, 33 (2020).</li><li>Niazian, M., Belzile, F., Torkamaneh, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR/Cas9+in+planta+hairy+root+transformation:+a+powerful+platform+for+functional+analysis+of+root+traits+in+Soybean.">CRISPR/Cas9 in planta hairy root transformation: a powerful platform for functional analysis of root traits in Soybean.</a> Plants. 11 (8), 1044 (2022).</li><li>Petit, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Further+extension+of+the+opine+concept:+plasmids+in+Agrobacterium+rhizogenes+cooperate+for+opine+degradation.">Further extension of the opine concept: plasmids in Agrobacterium rhizogenes cooperate for opine degradation.</a> Molecular and General Genetics MGG. 190 (2), 204-214 (1983).</li><li>Ozyigit, I. I., Dogan, I., Tarhan, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Agrobacterium+rhizogenes-mediated+transformation+and+its+biotechnological+applications+in+crops.">Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation and its biotechnological applications in crops.</a> Crop improvement. , (2013).</li><li>Jedli&#269;kov&#225;, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hairy+root+transformation+system+as+a+tool+for+CRISPR/Cas9-directed+genome+editing+in+oilseed+rape+(Brassica+napus).">Hairy root transformation system as a tool for CRISPR/Cas9-directed genome editing in oilseed rape (Brassica napus).</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 13, 919290 (2022).</li><li>Steinbauerov&#225;, V., Neumann, P., Macas, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+evidence+for+splicing+of+intron-containing+transcripts+of+plant+LTR+retrotransposon+Ogre.">Experimental evidence for splicing of intron-containing transcripts of plant LTR retrotransposon Ogre.</a> Molecular Genetics and Genomics. 280 (5), 427-436 (2008).</li><li>Neumann, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Centromeres+off+the+hook:+massive+changes+in+centromere+size+and+structure+following+duplication+of+CenH3+gene+in+Fabeae+species.">Centromeres off the hook: massive changes in centromere size and structure following duplication of CenH3 gene in Fabeae species.</a> Molecular Biology and Evolution. 32 (7), 1862-1879 (2015).</li><li>Montazeri, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Comparative+analysis+of+the+hairy+root+induction+methods+in+Hypericum+perforatum.">A Comparative analysis of the hairy root induction methods in Hypericum perforatum.</a> Journal of Plant Molecular Breeding. 7 (1), 67-76 (2019).</li><li>Zhang, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peat-based+hairy+root+transformation+using+Rhizobium+rhizogenes+as+a+rapid+and+efficient+tool+for+easily+exploring+potential+genes+related+to+root-knot+nematode+parasitism+and+host+response.">Peat-based hairy root transformation using Rhizobium rhizogenes as a rapid and efficient tool for easily exploring potential genes related to root-knot nematode parasitism and host response.</a> Plant Methods. 19 (1), 22 (2023).</li><li>Christey, M. C., Sinclair, B. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regeneration+of+transgenic+kale+(Brassica+oleracea+var.+acephala),+rape+(B.+napus)+and+turnip+(B.+campestris+var.+rapifera)+plants+via+Agrobacterium+rhizogenes+mediated+transformation.">Regeneration of transgenic kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala), rape (B. napus) and turnip (B. campestris var. rapifera) plants via Agrobacterium rhizogenes mediated transformation.</a> Plant Science. 87 (2), 161-169 (1992).</li><li>Christey, M. C., Sinclair, B. K., Braun, R. H., Wyke, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regeneration+of+transgenic+vegetable+brassicas+(Brassica+oleracea+and+B.+campestris)+via+Ri-mediated+transformation.">Regeneration of transgenic vegetable brassicas (Brassica oleracea and B. campestris) via Ri-mediated transformation.</a> Plant Cell Reports. 16 (9), 587-593 (1997).</li></ol>

The authors declare that the research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

We developed a simple protocol for hairy root transformation and subsequent regeneration in B. napus and A. thaliana. This process includes injection-based hairy root induction in the hypocotyl (B. napus) or primary inflorescence stem (A. thaliana). The method of injecting the hypocotyl with agrobacterial strain C58C1 carrying a Ri plasmid was also effective in the Fabaceae family10,11, besides the members of Brassicaceae presented in this study.
An alternative to the injection-based method is the immersion-based transformation consisting of explant immersion in a bacterial suspension, followed by co-cultivation of the explant with agrobacteria. The advantage of the injection-based method over the immersion method is the time saved by the absence of some protocol steps: explant preparation, a test of the co-cultivation time, and culture on a medium containing hormone for induction of hairy roots. Although both approaches are effective for hairy root induction, higher transformation efficiency was observed in some species with the injection-based method compared to the explant immersion one12,13. Moreover, injection-based transformation is also useful for generating composite plants (transgenic hairy roots and wild-type shoots). After cutting off the original roots of the transformed plant, hairy roots support the plant growth, and the transgene can be studied in the context of the whole plant.
The critical step of hairy root induction is injecting the inoculum into the hypocotyl, or primary inflorescence stem. The hypocotyls of B. napus are breakable, and cutting the whole hypocotyl can easily happen. The same can be observed with A. thaliana because of the inflorescence stem thinness. If a comparison of the transformation efficiency of different species/cultivars is required, we recommend that one person perform all experiments to avoid the error caused by manipulation and skill in injecting the plants.
We developed an effective protocol for hairy root regeneration in B. napus DH12075 and A. thaliana Col-0. As regeneration is a highly variable process, some protocol modifications may be applied to a species or cultivar of choice. For instance, the hairy root-derived shoots can be elicited by a different auxin/cytokinin ratio (1:1) in B. oleracea14. Alternatively, cytokinin thidiazuron can be used instead of BAP, such as in the case of B. campestris hairy roots15.
Multiple insertions of the Ri plasmid T-DNA into the plant genome represent a potential limitation of the hairy root transformation and regeneration system. In such cases, no plants free of TL/TR from the Ri plasmid are uncovered after a segregation analysis of T1 seedlings. Thus, we recommend generating several independent hairy root lines for each transgene.
Hairy root cultures are an extremely powerful tool for gene functional studies mainly because of their rapid establishment and cheap maintenance (no hormones needed in cultivation media). This protocol covers the methods for hairy root induction and regeneration in B. napus and A. thaliana, which can be used to study the transgene of interest directly in hairy root cultures, in the context of the whole plant using composite plants, or after the regeneration of the transgenic plants.

Plant transformation is the bottleneck of any genetic study in plant biology. A soil-borne bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, is widely used as a means for gene delivery by floral dip or tissue culture to generate transformants. A. tumefaciens infects plants at a wounding site and causes tumors due to the transfer and integration of T-DNA from a Tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid into the host plant genome. Engineered A. tumefaciens strains with modified Ti plasmid without the wild-type T-DNA and a binary vector with artificial T-DNA and cloning sites for inserting a gene of interest are commonly used as an efficient plant transformation system1. However, many model species and crops are recalcitrant to floral dip or in vitro plant regeneration or have long growth cycles, impacting the efficiency of this transformation system.
Agrobacterium rhizogenes induces the formation of adventitious roots, or hairy roots, at the wounding site after infecting a host plant. Similar to A. tumefaciens, A. rhizogenes transfers a T-DNA from a Root-inducing (Ri) plasmid to the host plant genome, causing the development of transgenic hairy roots. This process is controlled mainly by the root oncogenic loci (rol) genes2,3. Using agrobacterial strains carrying both the Ri plasmid and an artificial binary vector encoding a gene of interest, hairy root cultures have been used to produce recombinant proteins, analyze the function of promoters or genes, or edit genomes using Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPRs)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9)4,5,6.
Our protocol uses the transconjugant strain Ti-less A. tumefaciens C58C1 carrying the Ri plasmid pRiA4b7. The T-DNA of the Ri plasmid consists of two regions, right and left T-DNA (TR-DNA and TL-DNA, respectively), that can independently integrate into the plant genome8. Exploiting this system, the lengthy explant transformation process in Brassica napus DH12075 cultivar was optimized9. The protocol detailed below allows for the regeneration of selected hairy root lines and obtaining T1 plants carrying the transgene of interest and free of rol genes in roughly 1 year. The injection-based hairy root transformation can be used in other Brassicaceae species, as shown by transforming Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0. While hypocotyl is used to transform B. napus, A. thaliana is injected into the primary inflorescence stem.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.50 mL tubes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>125.215</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% solution of commercial bleach&#160;</td>
			<td>SAVO</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA)&#160;</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>N0903</td>
			<td>Callus regeneration medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2.0 mL tubes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>108.132/108.078</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3M micropore tape</td>
			<td>Micropore</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP)&#160;</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>B0904</td>
			<td>Callus regeneration medium, Shoot elongation medium&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70% ethanol</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bacteriological agar</td>
			<td>HiMedia</td>
			<td>RM201</td>
			<td>LB medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacteriological peptone</td>
			<td>Oxoid</td>
			<td>LP0037</td>
			<td>LB and YEB media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beef extract</td>
			<td>Roth</td>
			<td>X975.1</td>
			<td>YEB medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottles</td>
			<td>DURAN</td>
			<td>L300025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cefotaxime sodium</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>C0111</td>
			<td>Hairy root growing medium, Callus regeneration medium, Shoot elongation medium, Root induction medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>chloroform</td>
			<td>Serva</td>
			<td>3955301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CTAB Hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>52365</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTP mix</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>R0193</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA - Titriplex III, (Ethylenendinitrilo)tetraacetic Acid, Disodium Salt, Dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>ES134-250G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>elctroporation cuvette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electrophesis agar, peqGOLD universal</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>732-2789</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electrophoresis chamber</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electrophoresis gel reader</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>electroporator GenePulser Xcell</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethidium bromide</td>
			<td>AppliChem</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gene Pulser/MicroPulser electroporation cuvettes, 0.2 cm gap</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>1652082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gene Ruler DNA ladder mix</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SM0331</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gibberellic acid (GA3)</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>G0907</td>
			<td>Shoot elongation medium&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G5516-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES (2-(4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-pirerazinyl)-ethansulfonique</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1101100250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>indole-3-butyric acid (IBA)</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>I0902</td>
			<td>Root induction medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>kanamycin monosulfate</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>K0126</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magenta GA-7 Plant Culture Box w/ Lid</td>
			<td>Plant Media</td>
			<td>V8505-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Measuring cylinder</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MES monohydrate</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>M1503</td>
			<td>Hairy root growing medium, Callus regeneration medium, Shoot elongation medium, Root induction medium, Medium for germination, Plant growing medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Murashige and Skoog medium (MS)</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>M0237</td>
			<td>Medium for germination, Plant growing medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) + B5 vitamins&#160;</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>M0231</td>
			<td>Hairy root growing medium, Callus regeneration medium, Shoot elongation medium, Root induction medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>needle Agani 26G x 1/2 - 0.45 x 13mm</td>
			<td>Terumo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH meter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phytagel</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P8169</td>
			<td>Callus regeneration medium, Root induction medium, Medium for germination</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVP 40 (polyvinylpyrolidone Mr 40000)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>9003-39-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Redtaq DNA Polymerase,Taq for routine PCR with inert dye, 10X buffer included</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D4309-250UN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retsh mill</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Lachner</td>
			<td>30093-APO</td>
			<td>LB medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>square Petri Dishes</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>GOSSBP124-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sucrose</td>
			<td>Penta</td>
			<td>24970-31000</td>
			<td>Hairy root growing medium, Callus regeneration medium, Shoot elongation medium, Root induction medium, Medium for germination, Plant growing medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe filter</td>
			<td>Carl Roth</td>
			<td>P666.1</td>
			<td>Rotylabo syringe filters 0.22 &#181;m pore size</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>thermomixer</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ticarcillin disodium</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>T0180</td>
			<td>Hairy root growing medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethan</td>
			<td>Serva</td>
			<td>3719003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ultrapure water</td>
			<td>Millipore Milli-Q purified water&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Duchefa</td>
			<td>Y1333</td>
			<td>LB medium</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

hairy root transformation and regeneration in arabidopsis thaliana and brassica napus

Hairy root transformation represents a versatile tool for plant biotechnology in various species. Infection by an Agrobacterium strain carrying a Root-inducing (Ri) plasmid induces the formation of hairy roots at the wounding site after the transfer of T-DNA from the Ri plasmid into the plant genome. The protocol describes in detail the procedure of the injection-based hairy root induction in Brassica napus DH12075 and Arabidopsis thaliana Col-0. The hairy roots may be used to analyze a transgene of interest or processed for the generation of transgenic plants. Regeneration medium containing cytokinin 6-benzylaminopurine (5 mg/L) and auxin 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (8 mg/L) successfully elicits shoot formation in both species. The protocol covers the genotyping and selection of regenerants and T1 plants to obtain plants carrying a transgene of interest and free of T-DNA from the Ri plasmid. An alternative process leading to the formation of a composite plant is also depicted. In this case, hairy roots are kept on the shoot (instead of the natural roots), which enables the study of a transgene in hairy root cultures in the context of the whole plant.

We have previously optimized a protocol for injection-based hairy root induction in three cultivars of Brassica napus, namely DH12075, Topas DH4079, and Westar9. To apply this transformation protocol to the model species A. thaliana, the primary inflorescence stems of 1-month-old plantlets were injected with an agrobacterial inoculum. Hairy roots emerged at the site of injection after 2-4 weeks. Hairy roots were excised and cultivated on the solid medium. The comparison of the method in these two species is depicted in Figure 1.
Selected hairy root lines were transferred to the regeneration medium to induce shoot formation. In A. thaliana, yellow calli were induced within 14 days in all 10 tested hairy root lines. First shoot primordia visible as dark green spots emerged within 3 weeks after transfer to the regeneration medium (Figure 2). After 4 weeks of culture, shoots covered the hairy roots in 9 of 10 hairy root lines (90% regeneration efficiency). In some cases, adventitious roots were elicited from the callus (Figure 2H). One line did not regenerate even after 3 months on the Regeneration medium (every 4 weeks, the hairy roots were transferred to a fresh medium). Thus, the regeneration efficiency of A. thaliana hairy roots resembles the efficiency of B. napus DH120759.
Hairy root regenerants of B. napus and A. thaliana display a dwarf phenotype (Figure 3), a typical feature of the hairy root-derived plants2. We also observed dense root systems, wrinkled leaves, and changes in flowering time. This so-called hairy root (or Ri) phenotype is caused by the rol genes from the Ri plasmid inserted into the plant genome. The insertion of the Ri T-DNA and the transgene encoded on a binary vector may be independent or linked. Thus, a segregation analysis of T1 progeny created by self-pollination helps to identify rol-free plants expressing the transgene of interest. Genotyping of the T1 plants is performed by PCR primers specific for the ORFs of TL and TR and the transgene of interest. The absence of agrobacterial contamination is verified by the absence of PCR products of virC primers (Figure 1).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66223/66223fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Summary of the procedure in A. thaliana and B. napus. The injection of the Agrobacterium inoculum in the hypocotyl or primary inflorescence stem induces the development of hairy roots. The hairy roots can replace the native roots to generate a composite plant that will be genotyped and analyzed (blue arrows). Cultured hairy roots can be regenerated into T0 plants, propagated in T1 plants, and genotyped (green arrows). The hairy roots can also be sub-cultured for functional analysis (black arrow). Examples of genotyping results are presented. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66223/66223fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66223/66223fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Regeneration of hairy roots in A. thaliana. (A) Hairy root culture 1 day after its transfer to plates. (B, C) Calli developed within 2 weeks of culture on regeneration medium. (D, E) Shoot primordia emerged after 3 weeks of culture. (G, H) Shoots are formed after 4 weeks. (H) Adventitious roots developed from the callus. (C, F, I) Non-regenerating hairy root line. Scale bars represent 1 cm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66223/66223fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66223/66223fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Representative photos of B. napus and A. thaliana wild-type plants and hairy-root-derived regenerants (T0 plants). Note the Ri phenotype of the regenerants. Scale bars represent 2 cm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66223/66223fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Hairy Root Transformation and Regeneration in Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica napus at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Optimizing Hairy Root-Based Transformation Protocols for Enhanced Efficiency in Brassicaceae

The protocol describes hairy root induction using Arabidopsis primary inflorescence stems and Brassica napus hypocotyls. The hairy roots can be cultured and used as explants to regenerate transgenic plants.

Hairy Root Transformation and Regeneration in Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica napus

Hairy root transformation represents a versatile tool for plant biotechnology in various species. Infection by an Agrobacterium strain carrying a ...

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3.2K Views.  Masaryk University. The protocol describes hairy root induction using Arabidopsis primary inflorescence stems and Brassica napus hypocotyls. The hairy roots can be cultured and used as explants to regenerate transgenic plants. 

Video: Author Spotlight: Optimizing Hairy Root-Based Transformation Protocols for Enhanced Efficiency in Brassicaceae

Isolation of Protoplasts from Tissues of 14-day-old Seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana

Protoplasts are plant cells that have had their cell walls enzymatically removed. Isolation of protoplasts from different plant tissues was first reported more than 40 years ago 1 and has since been adapted to study a variety of cellular processes, such as subcellular localization of proteins, isolation of intact organelles and targeted gene-inactivation by double stranded RNA interference (RNAi) 2-5. Most of the protoplast isolation protocols use leaf tissues of mature Arabidopsis (e.g. 35-day-old plants) 2-4. We modified existing protocols by employing 14-day-old Arabidopsis seedlings. In this procedure, one gram of 14-day-old seedlings yielded 5 106-107 protoplasts that remain intact at least 96 hours. The yield of protoplasts from seedlings is comparable with preparations from leaves of mature Arabidopsis, but instead of 35-36 days, isolation of protoplasts is completed in 15 days. This allows decreasing the time and growth chamber space that are required for isolating protoplasts when mature plants are used, and expedites the downstream studies that require intact protoplasts.

Isolation of Protoplasts from Tissues of 14-day-old Seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana

This video shows a procedure for isolating intact protoplasts from tissues of 14-day-old seedlings of Arabidopsis. Given that the isolated protoplasts remain intact for at least 96h and are isolated from seedlings instead of one-month-old mature plants, this procedure expedites assays requiring intact protoplasts.

Protoplasts are plant cells that have had their cell walls enzymatically removed. Isolation of protoplasts  from different plant tissues was first ...

Investigating Tissue- and Organ-specific Phytochrome Responses using FACS-assisted Cell-type Specific Expression Profiling in Arabidopsis thaliana

Light mediates an array of developmental and adaptive processes throughout the life cycle of a plant. Plants utilize light-absorbing molecules called photoreceptors to sense and adapt to light. The red/far-red light-absorbing phytochrome photoreceptors have been studied extensively. Phytochromes exist as a family of proteins with distinct and overlapping functions in all higher plant systems in which they have been studied1. Phytochrome-mediated light responses, which range from seed germination through flowering and senescence, are often localized to specific plant tissues or organs2. Despite the discovery and elucidation of individual and redundant phytochrome functions through mutational analyses, conclusive reports on distinct sites of photoperception and the molecular mechanisms of localized pools of phytochromes that mediate spatial-specific phytochrome responses are limited. We designed experiments based on the hypotheses that specific sites of phytochrome photoperception regulate tissue- and organ-specific aspects of photomorphogenesis, and that localized phytochrome pools engage distinct subsets of downstream target genes in cell-to-cell signaling. We developed a biochemical approach to selectively reduce functional phytochromes in an organ- or tissue-specific manner within transgenic plants. Our studies are based on a bipartite enhancer-trap approach that results in transactivation of the expression of a gene under control of the Upstream Activation Sequence (UAS) element by the transcriptional activator GAL43. The biliverdin reductase (BVR) gene under the control of the UAS is silently maintained in the absence of GAL4 transactivation in the UAS-BVR parent4. Genetic crosses between a UAS-BVR transgenic line and a GAL4-GFP enhancer trap line result in specific expression of the BVR gene in cells marked by GFP expression4. BVR accumulation in Arabidopsis plants results in phytochrome chromophore deficiency in planta5-7. Thus, transgenic plants that we have produced exhibit GAL4-dependent activation of the BVR gene, resulting in the biochemical inactivation of phytochrome, as well as GAL4-dependent GFP expression. Photobiological and molecular genetic analyses of BVR transgenic lines are yielding insight into tissue- and organ-specific phytochrome-mediated responses that have been associated with corresponding sites of photoperception4, 7, 8. Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) of GFP-positive, enhancer-trap-induced BVR-expressing plant protoplasts coupled with cell-type-specific gene expression profiling through microarray analysis is being used to identify putative downstream target genes involved in mediating spatial-specific phytochrome responses. This research is expanding our understanding of sites of light perception, the mechanisms through which various tissues or organs cooperate in light-regulated plant growth and development, and advancing the molecular dissection of complex phytochrome-mediated cell-to-cell signaling cascades.

Investigating Tissue- and Organ-specific Phytochrome Responses using FACS-assisted Cell-type Specific Expression Profiling in Arabidopsis thaliana

The molecular basis of spatial-specific phytochrome responses is being investigated using transgenic plants that exhibit tissue- and organ-specific phytochrome deficiencies. The isolation of specific cells exhibiting induced phytochrome chromophore depletion by Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting followed by microarray analyses is being utilized to identify genes involved in spatial-specific phytochrome responses.

Light mediates an array of developmental and adaptive processes throughout the life cycle of a plant. Plants utilize light-absorbing molecules called ...

Floral-dip Transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana to Examine pTSO2::&beta;-glucuronidase Reporter Gene Expression

The ability to introduce foreign genes into an organism is the foundation for modern biology and biotechnology. In the model flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the floral-dip transformation method1-2 has replaced all previous methods because of its simplicity, efficiency, and low cost. Specifically, shoots of young flowering Arabidopsis plants are dipped in a solution of Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying specific plasmid constructs. After dipping, the plants are returned to normal growth and yield seeds, a small percentage of which are transformed with the foreign gene and can be selected for on medium containing antibiotics. This floral-dip method significantly facilitated Arabidopsis research and contributed greatly to our understanding of plant gene function. In this study, we use the floral-dip method to transform a reporter gene, &beta;-glucuronidase (GUS), under the control of TSO2 promoter. TSO2, coding for the Ribonucleotide Reductase (RNR) small subunit3, is a cell cycle regulated gene essential for dNDP biosynthesis in the S-phase of the cell cycle. Examination of GUS expression in transgenic Arabidopsis seedlings shows that TSO2 is expressed in actively dividing tissues. The reported experimental method and materials can be easily adapted not only for research but also for education at high school and college levels.

Floral-dip Transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana to Examine pTSO2::&amp;#946;-glucuronidase Reporter Gene Expression

This article illustrates the floral-dip method of Agrobacterium tumefaciens -mediated transformation of Arabidopsis thaliana. By introducing a cell-cycle regulated promoter-reporter, pTSO2::&beta;-glucuronidase (GUS), into Arabidopsis, we illustrates how one detects GUS reporter expression in transgenic seedlings.

The ability to introduce foreign genes into an organism is the foundation for modern biology and biotechnology. In the model flowering plant Arabidopsis ...

Efficient and Rapid Isolation of Early-stage Embryos from Arabidopsis thaliana Seeds

In flowering plants, the embryo develops within a nourishing tissue - the endosperm - surrounded by the maternal seed integuments (or seed coat). As a consequence, the isolation of plant embryos at early stages (1 cell to globular stage) is technically challenging due to their relative inaccessibility. Efficient manual dissection at early stages is strongly impaired by the small size of young Arabidopsis seeds and the adhesiveness of the embryo to the surrounding tissues. Here, we describe a method that allows the efficient isolation of young Arabidopsis embryos, yielding up to 40 embryos in 1 hr to 4 hr, depending on the downstream application. Embryos are released into isolation buffer by slightly crushing 250-750 seeds with a plastic pestle in an Eppendorf tube. A glass microcapillary attached to either a standard laboratory pipette (via a rubber tube) or a hydraulically controlled microinjector is used to collect embryos from droplets placed on a multi-well slide on an inverted light microscope. The technical skills required are simple and easily transferable, and the basic setup does not require costly equipment. Collected embryos are suitable for a variety of downstream applications such as RT-PCR, RNA sequencing, DNA methylation analyses, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), immunostaining, and reporter gene assays.

Efficient and Rapid Isolation of Early-stage Embryos from Arabidopsis thaliana Seeds

We report an efficient and simple method to isolate embryos at early stages of development from Arabidopsis thaliana seeds. Up to 40 embryos can be isolated in 1 hr to 4 hr, depending on the downstream application. The procedure is suitable for transcriptome, DNA methylation, reporter gene expression, immunostaining and fluorescence in situ hybridization analyses.

In flowering plants, the embryo develops within a nourishing tissue - the endosperm - surrounded by the maternal seed integuments (or seed coat). As a ...

Metabolic Labeling and Membrane Fractionation for Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Suspension Cell Cultures

Plasma membrane microdomains are features based on the physical properties of the lipid and sterol environment and have particular roles in signaling processes. Extracting sterol-enriched membrane microdomains from plant cells for proteomic analysis is a difficult task mainly due to multiple preparation steps and sources for contaminations from other cellular compartments. The plasma membrane constitutes only about 5-20% of all the membranes in a plant cell, and therefore isolation of highly purified plasma membrane fraction is challenging. A frequently used method involves aqueous two-phase partitioning in polyethylene glycol and dextran, which yields plasma membrane vesicles with a purity of 95% 1. Sterol-rich membrane microdomains within the plasma membrane are insoluble upon treatment with cold nonionic detergents at alkaline pH. This detergent-resistant membrane fraction can be separated from the bulk plasma membrane by ultracentrifugation in a sucrose gradient 2. Subsequently, proteins can be extracted from the low density band of the sucrose gradient by methanol/chloroform precipitation. Extracted protein will then be trypsin digested, desalted and finally analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Our extraction protocol for sterol-rich microdomains is optimized for the preparation of clean detergent-resistant membrane fractions from Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures.
We use full metabolic labeling of Arabidopsis thaliana suspension cell cultures with K15NO3 as the only nitrogen source for quantitative comparative proteomic studies following biological treatment of interest 3. By mixing equal ratios of labeled and unlabeled cell cultures for joint protein extraction the influence of preparation steps on final quantitative result is kept at a minimum. Also loss of material during extraction will affect both control and treatment samples in the same way, and therefore the ratio of light and heave peptide will remain constant. In the proposed method either labeled or unlabeled cell culture undergoes a biological treatment, while the other serves as control 4.

Metabolic Labeling and Membrane Fractionation for Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Suspension Cell Cultures

Here we describe a robust method for the fractionation of plant plasma membranes into detergent resistant and detergent soluble membranes based on a mixture of unlabeled and in vivo fully 15N labeled Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures. The procedure is applied for comparative proteomic studies to understand signaling processes.

Plasma membrane microdomains are features based on the physical properties of the lipid and sterol environment and have particular roles in signaling ...

Histochemical Staining of Arabidopsis thaliana Secondary Cell Wall Elements

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism commonly used to understand and manipulate various cellular processes in plants, and it has been used extensively in the study of secondary cell wall formation. Secondary cell wall deposition occurs after the primary cell wall is laid down, a process carried out exclusively by specialized cells such as those forming vessel and fiber tissues. Most secondary cell walls are composed of cellulose (40&#8211;50%), hemicellulose (25&#8211;30%), and lignin (20&#8211;30%). Several mutations affecting secondary cell wall biosynthesis have been isolated, and the corresponding mutants may or may not exhibit obvious biochemical composition changes or visual phenotypes since these mutations could be masked by compensatory responses. Staining procedures have historically been used to show differences on a cellular basis. These methods are exclusively visual means of analysis; nevertheless their role in rapid and critical analysis is of great importance. Congo red and calcofluor white are stains used to detect polysaccharides, whereas M&#228;ule and phloroglucinol are commonly used to determine differences in lignin, and toluidine blue O is used to differentially stain polysaccharides and lignin. The seemingly simple techniques of sectioning, staining, and imaging can be a challenge for beginners. Starting with sample preparation using the A. thaliana model, this study details the protocols of a variety of staining methodologies that can be easily implemented for observation of cell and tissue organization in secondary cell walls of plants.

Histochemical Staining of Arabidopsis thaliana Secondary Cell Wall Elements

Plant cell wall composition varies between tissue types and can include lignin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin. Various staining techniques have been developed to visualize differences at the cell-type level. This paper is a compilation of commonly used cell wall staining techniques.

Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism commonly used to understand and manipulate various cellular processes in plants, and it has been used extensively ...

Lateral Root Inducible System in Arabidopsis and Maize

Lateral root development contributes significantly to the root system, and hence is crucial for plant growth. The study of lateral root initiation is however tedious, because it occurs only in a few cells inside the root and in an unpredictable manner. To circumvent this problem, a Lateral Root Inducible System (LRIS) has been developed. By treating seedlings consecutively with an auxin transport inhibitor and a synthetic auxin, highly controlled lateral root initiation occurs synchronously in the primary root, allowing abundant sampling of a desired developmental stage. The LRIS has first been developed for Arabidopsis thaliana, but can be applied to other plants as well. Accordingly, it has been adapted for use in maize (Zea mays). A detailed overview of the different steps of the LRIS in both plants is given. The combination of this system with comparative transcriptomics made it possible to identify functional homologs of Arabidopsis lateral root initiation genes in other species as illustrated here for the CYCLIN B1;1 (CYCB1;1) cell cycle gene in maize. Finally, the principles that need to be taken into account when an LRIS is developed for other plant species are discussed.

Lateral Root Inducible System in Arabidopsis and Maize

The Lateral Root Inducible System (LRIS) allows for synchronous induction of lateral roots and is presented for Arabidopsis thaliana and maize.

Lateral root development contributes significantly to the root system, and hence is crucial for plant growth. The study of lateral root initiation is ...

Phloem Sap Sampling from Brassica napus for 3D-PAGE of Protein and Ribonucleoprotein Complexes

Sampling the phloem of higher plants is often laborious and significantly dependent on the plant species. However, proteome studies under denaturing conditions could be achieved in different plant species. Native protein:protein and protein:nucleic acid complexes from phloem samples have as yet scarcely been analyzed, although they might play important roles in maintenance of this specialized compartment or in long-distance signaling. Large molecular assemblies can be isolated using a blue native gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE). Their protein components can be separated by a subsequent sodium dodecyl sulfate PAGE (SDS-PAGE). However, proteins with similar molecular weights co-migrate, what can hinder protein identification by mass spectrometry. Combining BN-PAGE with two different denaturing gel electrophoresis steps, namely Tris-Tricine-urea and SDS-PAGE, enables the additional separation of proteins according to their hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity and thus increases resolution and the success of protein identification. It even allows distinguishing proteins that only differ in their posttranslational modifications. In addition, blue native northern blotting can be applied to identify the RNA components in macromolecular complexes. We show that our protocol is suitable to unravel the protein and RNA components of native protein:protein and ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes occurring in phloem samples. Combining a blue native PAGE with two different denaturing PAGE steps can help to separate different kinds of large protein complexes, and also enables an increased identification rate of their components by mass spectrometry. Furthermore, the protocol is robust enough to simultaneously detect potentially bound nucleic acids within single protein complexes.

Phloem Sap Sampling from Brassica napus for 3D-PAGE of Protein and Ribonucleoprotein Complexes

Here we present a protocol to analyze the protein composition of large native protein:protein and protein:nucleic acid complexes from oilseed rape (B. napus) phloem exudate using a 3D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) approach combining blue native (BN) with two denaturing PAGEs followed by mass spectrometric identification.

Sampling the phloem of higher plants is often laborious and significantly dependent on the plant species. However, proteome studies under denaturing ...

Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Growth Behavior in Different Light Qualities

Plant biologists often need to observe the growth behavior of their chosen species. To this end, the plants need constant environmental and stable light conditions, which are preferably variable in quantity and quality so that studies under different setups can be conducted. These requirements are met by climatic chambers featuring light emitting diodes (LED) lights, which can &#8211; in contrast to fluorescent lights &#8211; be set to different wavelengths. LEDs are energy conserving and emit virtually no heat even at light intensities, which often constitutes a problem with other light sources. The presented protocol provides a step-by-step guidance of how to program a climatic chamber equipped with variable LED lights as well as describing several approaches for in depth analysis of growth phenotypes. Depending on the experimental set-up various characteristics of the growing plants can be observed and analyzed. Here we describe how to determine fresh weight, leaf area, photosynthetic activity, and stomatal density. We demonstrate that in order to obtain reliable data and draw valid conclusions it is mandatory to use a sufficient number of individuals for statistical evaluation. Taking too few plants for this kind of analysis results in high statistical errors and consequently in less clear interpretations of the data.

Analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana Growth Behavior in Different Light Qualities

Here, we present a protocol for studying plant growth behavior and especially phenotypes in a reproducible manner. We show how to provide variable and at the same time stable light conditions. Proper analyses depend on sufficient sample numbers and valid statistical evaluations.

Plant biologists often need to observe the growth behavior of their chosen species. To this end, the plants need constant environmental and stable light ...

Spatiotemporal Investigation of ERL1 Dynamics via Confocal Imaging

Image-Based Methods to Study Membrane Trafficking Events in Stomatal Lineage Cells

In eukaryotic cells, membrane components, including proteins and lipids, are spatiotemporally transported to their destination within the endomembrane system. This includes the secretory transport of newly synthesized proteins to the cell surface or the outside of the cell, the endocytic transport of extracellular cargoes or plasma membrane components into the cell, and the recycling or shuttling transport of cargoes between the subcellular organelles, etc. Membrane trafficking events are crucial to the development, growth, and environmental adaptation of all eukaryotic cells and, thus, are under stringent regulation. Cell-surface receptor kinases, which perceive ligand signals from the extracellular space, undergo both secretory and endocytic transport. Commonly used approaches to study the membrane trafficking events using a plasma membrane-localized leucine-rich-repeat receptor kinase, ERL1, are described here. The approaches include plant material preparation, pharmacological treatment, and confocal imaging setup. To monitor the spatiotemporal regulation of ERL1, this study describes the co-localization analysis between ERL1 and a multi-vesicular body marker protein, RFP-Ara7, the time series analysis of these two proteins, and the z-stack analysis of ERL1-YFP treated with the membrane trafficking inhibitors brefeldin A and wortmannin.

Author Spotlight: Image-Based Methods to Study Membrane Trafficking Events in Stomatal Lineage Cells  

Several commonly used methods are introduced here to study the membrane trafficking events of a plasma membrane receptor kinase. This manuscript describes detailed protocols including the plant material preparation, pharmacological treatment, and confocal imaging setup.

In eukaryotic cells, membrane components, including proteins and lipids, are spatiotemporally transported to their destination within the endomembrane ...