We would like to thank Evan Rapoport and William Hulbert for writing the code for the original and updated Matrix programs.

注：以下协议如下罗格斯大学人类研究伦理委员会的指导方针。 1，刺激<ol><li>使用集合的照片，每个属于同一类别。选择的刺激最适合的实验问题的数量;许多以前的工作与此过程中使用的每类24照片; </li><li>对社会的威胁检测的研究，使用示意图或作为威胁的刺激，如在NimStim脸上发现了成人愤怒的表情设定5，7-9愤怒面孔的照片。另外，使用可怕的脸5。 </li><li>对于社会的威胁患儿的检测研究，用成人的脸刺激，如上面所描述的，或使用儿童愤怒面孔的照片，如在儿童情感的面部表情设置标准（CAFE）8，看下面的注释 。 注：LoBue，五，和舍，三子Affecti已经表情（CAFE）套装：由未经训练的成年人有效性和可靠性（2014）。 </li><li>对于威胁性的动物，如蛇和蜘蛛的检测研究，利用动物从大自然的书籍或网站3-4,7照片。 </li><li>选择一个类别是非常匹配的威胁类别中性的比较刺激。如果学习威胁（愤怒/恐惧）的面孔，用中性或幸福的笑脸作为比较刺激。如果学习威胁的动物（ 如蛇/蜘蛛），使用类似的感知不具威胁性的动物（ 如蛙/蟑螂）3-4。 </li><li>选择分心的刺激。无论是联通（蛇分心之间的青蛙分心之间如蛇的目标，和青蛙目标）的目标和分心，或使用一组分心统一的威胁和不具威胁性的目标条件下（ 如，花分心间蛇的目标，和青蛙花间目标分心）。 注：请参阅讨论与选择适当的分心问题。 </li><li>当刺激是由人脸的照片，使用同等数量的男性和女性的面孔，不同的基础上每套不同种族/族裔的可用性种族的面孔。 </li><li>当刺激物是由动物或植物的照片，匹配的类别的颜色和亮度，或者使用黑白照片3-4,7。 </li></ol> 2，设备<ol><li>获得一台带触摸屏显示器的任务。使用一个独立的触摸屏显示器，连接到标准的VGA端口，任何一台电脑，或使用平板电脑，其功能如同一个全功能于一身的电脑和触摸屏。 </li><li>选择研究的参数，包括矩阵尺寸和试验次数。 注：先前的工作中使用的9图像（3×3）矩阵，或4-图象（2×2）矩阵，以及24的试验，但其他参数可以是使用。 </li><li>使用一个自定义的程序提出了矩阵参与者，商业演示软件，如EPrime，或访问专为在作者的网站这种方法设计的矩阵程序。 注：矩阵程序允许灵活的学习参数。它使研究人员能够选择矩阵尺寸，试验次数，和刺激的选项。它也随机地排列每个矩阵中的刺激物，并显示它们以随机的顺序。 </li><li>排列触摸屏显示器/电脑在办公桌或工作台与位于表中的显示器前手印的轮廓。用手印为出发点，使参与者的手在每次试验开始时的同一个地方。 </li></ol> 3，儿童程序<ol><li>确保视障儿童配戴的眼镜或隐形眼镜整个过程。排除视障孩子谁没有correctivE设备。 </li><li>座椅参与者在从触摸屏显示器的开始实验前的基臂的长度。 </li><li>指导孩子们把他们的手放在手印。做到这一点每一个试验之间，使得参与者的双手在每一个试验初期一样的地方。 </li><li>站在监视器旁​​边指导参加者在整个手术过程。 </li><li>首先解释一下任务的孩子：“你准备好同我一起打电脑游戏？这是一个特殊的电脑，你可以触摸！我要告诉你一堆的屏幕上的图像，并要求你触动一些人。你准备好了吗？“ </li><li>其次，教孩子如何参加，给他们一些实践试验，使用触摸屏。在第一次审判实践中，目前参加者从目标类别的单张照片，并要求他们去触摸它的屏幕上。使用下列语言：“这是一个（目标）。你能触摸屏幕上的（目标）？“ </li><li>在第二次练习试验，目前参加者来自分心类单张照片，并要求他们去触摸它的屏幕上。使用下列语言：“这是一个（分心）。您可以在屏幕上触摸（分心）？“ </li><li>在未来三年的实践试验，目前参加全九画面矩阵与在八个分心一个目标。当第9画面的做法矩阵出现在屏幕上，给出如下说明：“当你看到照片都在屏幕上，这是你的工作，以找到（目标）和触摸一样快 ，你可以。你能做到吗？你认为你可以找到（目标）真的快吗？“ 注：该步骤可以被修改为其它大小的矩阵，如2×2,1×1 等。 </li><li>每个全矩阵审判之间，设计了刺激演示程序，这样一个笑脸图标。解释给孩子：“这是你的工作，接触到（目标），这是我的工作接触到笑脸”如果孩子试图触摸后续试验的笑脸加强这些方向。 </li><li>请在每个审判的笑脸，以确保孩子的全部注意力在屏幕上的下一个审判来临之前。当孩子的手都在手印和他/她看着屏幕，按下笑脸图标继续。每次试验之间做到这一点。 </li><li>触摸笑脸，继续第二和第三次练习试验。如果孩子不接触目标在屏幕上，重申了批示：“请记住，你的任务是找到（目标）一样快，你可以​​触摸它在屏幕上！” </li><li>其次，目前参与者的测试试验。 </li><li>使用刺激的演示程序，自动记录潜伏期从每个矩阵的发病触摸屏幕。在屏幕上当前矩阵，直到参与者触摸目标。显示笑脸图标时，不记录的延迟;使用此图标孩子的注意力重新定向到屏幕上，并在必要时重申说明。 </li><li>从你的等待时间数据识别错误。误差试验中，参与者选择的分心刺激来代替目标之一。自定义刺激呈现软件应该写这样的错误识别和标记输出。 </li><li>计算平均等待时间消除错误后，探测到目标物的刺激每一个参与者。使用这些数据的统计分析。 </li></ol> 4，成年过程<ol><li>确保视障的成年人都戴着自己的眼镜或隐形眼镜整个过程。排除谁没有矫正视力的设备受损的成年人。 </li><li>座椅参与者在从触摸屏显示器的基部臂的长度。 </lI&gt; <li>指导参与者把他/她的手在手印，以确保参与者的手都在同一个地方，在每一个审判的开始。 </li><li>站在监视器旁​​边指导参加者在整个手术过程。 </li><li>为了教导学员如何使用触摸屏，给他们一些实践试验。在前两种审判实践，要求学员从屏幕上的目标类别，然后从分心类别单一画面触摸单张照片。 </li><li>在未来三年的实践试验，目前参加全九画面矩阵的一个目标际8分心。 </li><li>指示参与者找到目标并快速触摸它们在屏幕上成为可能。然后返回他/她的手给手印。 注意：每次试验之间的笑脸是没有必要的成年参与者;您可以选择是否使用它或消除它。 </li><li>如果使用的是笑脸面孔，指导学员触摸笑脸就移动到下一个试验。 </li><li>下面的练习试验，目前参与测试的试验，每个包含一个目标和八个分心。 </li><li>使用刺激的演示程序，自动记录潜伏期从每个矩阵的发病触摸屏幕。 </li><li>从你的延迟数据识别错误，如在步骤3.13中指定。 </li><li>计算平均等待时间消除错误后，探测到目标物的刺激每一个参与者。使用这些数据的统计分析。 </li></ol>

<ol>
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Psychol. 114 (2), 235-248 (2005).</li><li>Flykt, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparedness+for+action:+Responding+to+the+snake+in+the+grass.">Preparedness for action: Responding to the snake in the grass.</a> J. Abnorm. Psychol. 119 (1), 29-43 (2006).</li><li>Flykt, A., Caldera, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+fear+in+snake+and+spider+fearful+participants+during+visual+search:+A+multi-response+domain+study.">Tracking fear in snake and spider fearful participants during visual search: A multi-response domain study.</a> Cognition Emotion. 20 (8), 1075-1091 (2006).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

这里的儿童友好的触摸屏检测模式的详细协议提出，并使用了儿童和成人的程序前面的结果进行了讨论。有迹象表明，研究人员使用的模式时，应该考虑一些其他因素。首先，研究人员应该仔细思考的实验装置，作为标记的目标，参与者的情绪状态，以及参与者的情绪特质（ 如，恐惧症，焦虑症）都被证明影响的结果1,11,15-16 。此外，研究人员应该采取谨慎选择合适的目标刺激。在大部分的威胁检测与成人的研究，发现蛇和蜘蛛进行比较，以检测花和蘑菇1。然而，由于花和蘑菇是不是动物，其优点为蛇和报告这些研究蜘蛛可能反映了对一般的动物，而不是威胁动物的优势s每秒本身。极少数的研究表明，动物（不论威胁的相关性）检测速度比植物17-19;对比蛇和蜘蛛等动物会纠正这个潜在的问题3-4。同样要注意，以选择合适的分心刺激视觉检测研究作为威胁分心因素已经显示出放缓的参与者，当他们检测不具威胁性的目标20-26。使用均匀的分心可能有助于确保在检测所发现的任何差异可以归因于靶7。最后，选择这两个目标和干扰物的刺激时，应注意在整个刺激付给感性的异质性。换言之，照片应匹配的颜色，亮度，亮度等 ，视觉搜索范式是特别敏感的刺激的低级别的感知差异。 的潜在的批判UCH-屏幕的范例是，它要求参与者通过触摸在屏幕上，以使与目标刺激的物理接触。有人可能会说，要求参加者以与威胁刺激的照片，身体接触可能会降低反应的促进它来代替。然而，使用触摸屏模式广泛的工作显示了一贯的威胁刺激检测（摸在屏幕上）的速度比各种不具威胁的刺激，即使参与者恐惧或害怕的威胁目标1。此外，一些研究已经表明，所需的触摸屏检测模式的按压动作确实与回避响应线。更具体地说，卡西奥普和他的同事认为，拉向自己的行为通常与临近利好刺激有关，而推行为产生的是类似于避免负面stimul身体反馈岛例如，与会者谁被要求在手臂屈曲任务进行评分中性刺激更喜欢刺激多的参与者谁在手臂支线任务27额定它们。因此，尽管触摸屏程序要求参与者进行身体接触的危险刺激，也没有证据表明，制作这些威胁身体接触减慢响应。 最后要注意的是，触摸屏操作，现在可以与眼动追踪技术，可允许的潜力发掘，推动快速威胁检测机制结合使用。一些研究人员，例如，已建议的优点为在视觉搜索范式威胁被迅速第一的注视驱动以危险刺激28。其他人报告说，这些结果是由以下事实的参与者检测威胁性比非威胁刺激29前使较少的注视驱动。在CON相比之下，其他研究表明，优势在焦虑或恐惧威胁的参与者通过难度从参与者的恐惧30-31对象脱离驱动。最后，还有其他人谁曾建议利用在检测范式的威胁是由于更快的行为响应 （按下一个按钮或触摸屏）威胁的目标先迷恋了。换句话说，危险刺激可引起更快的动作，而不一定是更快的检测32-33。使用触摸屏模式与眼动跟踪技术的结合可以帮助澄清这一重要（尚有争议）问题。 总之，对儿​​童友好的触摸屏模式产生类似的结果与传统的成人为中心的可视化检测范式产生。使用这种模式不仅可能有助于阐明种被检测出特别刺激的曲未来的研究ickly，但它也可能有助于揭示人类是如何获得这些偏见在视觉注意力的威胁。

几十年来，研究人员一直关注人类的检测各类危险刺激的。在以前的研究中使用的标准成人检测模式，参与者一般都表现为排列3×3的矩阵或2×2矩阵的照片。该矩阵是由一个单一的刺激类别由照片，或者包含第二个刺激类别的一个差异的图像。成人参与者被要求按下一个按钮，如果所有的照片都是从同一类别，而第二个按钮，如果有一个不一致的形象出现。成年人一般侦测威胁的刺激，包括蛇，蜘蛛和愤怒的表情比更快中性刺激，包括花，蘑菇，快乐或中性面孔1,2。 传统上，大多数威胁检测研究的重点一直是成年参与者。为了研究如何注意偏向于威胁发展，LoBue和德Loache（2008）修改的标准成人视觉检测模式，以便它可以与儿童使用，以及3。他们提出了与会者的图像3×3的矩阵触摸屏显示器上，包含在八个分心单个目标每个矩阵。他们告诉参加者找到目标尽快和触摸它的屏幕上。使用修改的触摸屏模式的各种研究已经表明的结果平行于那些报道的前期研究与上述的标准按键按下的过程：学龄前儿童（年龄介于3到5）和成人检测的蛇的图像的速度比的图像花卉，青蛙，毛毛虫;他们发现蜘蛛比蘑菇和蟑螂更快;他们发现愤怒和恐惧的表情高兴，中性，悲伤的面孔3-5更快。 有标准的按键，按程序和新的触摸屏之间的一些重要区别方法，使触摸屏的模式更容易和孩子友好。在经典的成年过程，参与者都带有两种类型的矩阵，一些被从一个单一类别组成的相片，以及其他包含从差异的类别的图像。在这个范例中，参与者的任务是按一个键，如果他们看到了差异的图像，和第二密钥，如果所有在基质中的图像属于相同的类别。相比之下，使用触摸屏操作的参与者知道会有每个矩阵的目标，他们的任务是简单地触摸它。这使得触摸屏的工作更加容易：而不必检测差异的图像是否存在，记得按下键盘上的特定按钮，参与者在触摸屏范式知道目标是存在于每一个矩阵，其唯一的任务就是找到它，并直接触摸屏幕5。此外，触摸屏程序可以是你作为强迫选择的任务，而不是一个是向右/像标准的按钮，按程序没有任务;采用迫选任务，消除任何潜在的反应偏差。触摸屏的方法，可以与孩子年仅3中使用，与年龄较大的儿童和成人使用。事实上，研究人员甚至用触摸屏模式，研究威胁检测的猴子，报告说，他们也发现一个蛇在八个花之快，超过一花独在八个蛇6。 在这里，我们提出了一个详细的协议，对孩子友好的触摸屏检测模式，描述了相关材料，设备，过程和分析需要使用这个程序有两个孩子和成人参加。我们描述了使用相同的参与者中的成人标准按钮按下程序和修改后的触摸屏程序以前的结果，并讨论相似，结果每个模式之间的差异。最后，我们讨论的实际考虑使用触摸屏操作在今后的研究上威胁检测的研究。

measuring attentional biases for threat in children and adults

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this domain has focused almost exclusively on adult participants, completely ignoring the topic of threat detection over the course of development. One of the biggest reasons for the lack of developmental work in this area is likely the absence of a reliable paradigm that can measure perceptual biases for threat in children. To address this issue, we recently designed a modified visual search paradigm similar to the standard adult paradigm that is appropriate for studying threat detection in preschool-aged participants. Here we describe this new procedure. In the general paradigm, we present participants with matrices of color photographs, and ask them to find and touch a target on the screen. Latency to touch the target is recorded. Using a touch-screen monitor makes the procedure simple and easy, allowing us to collect data in participants ranging from 3 years of age to adults. Thus far, the paradigm has consistently shown that both adults and children detect threatening stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, angry/fearful faces) more quickly than neutral stimuli (e.g., flowers, mushrooms, happy/neutral faces). Altogether, this procedure provides an important new tool for researchers interested in studying the development of attentional biases for threat.

统计分析 还有，可以与通过触摸屏的方法所产生的数据进行多种可能的统计分析。使用SPSS或其他统计软件对数据进行分析。用中使用的触摸屏检测任务的原始研究试间，其中每个参与者随机分配至一个实验条件3,5的设计。如果是这种情况，调查应计算平均等待时间来检测所有可用试验的目标刺激（如定向议定书）。这就产生了每个参与者的单一数据点。这些数据可以被输入与目标类别的主体间因子的标准方差分析的因变量。 备选地，研究人员可以选择使用受试者内设计与参与者接收到所有的实验条件。在这种情况下，研究人员应仔细counterbalanCE /随机任务的顺序，如参加者往往会得到更快了反复试验。研究人员可以使用上面介绍了使用重复测量方差分析的被试间设计相同的统计方法。可替换地，一个主体内设计的优点是，研究人员可以计算偏置得分，这是一般的差分值表示的偏置某些种类的刺激。例如，一个偏置的分数威胁面可以通过减去平均等待时间来检测愤怒的脸从平均等待时间来检测高兴面孔10来计算。在这种情况下，正的分数表示的偏压为威胁，并且负的分数表示一个偏压非威胁。 在某些情况下，研究人员可以选择使用主体内的设计，参与者完成几个实验条件下在一个单一的测试环节。在这些情况下，研究人员可以选择使用混合效应方差分析来分析试验级的数据，而不是的分析每个参与者一个平均的数据点。利用每一个数据点，而不是一个单一的平均值，混合模型考虑了参与者的行为，个体差异在许多试验过程中，减少了潜在的错误12-14。 最后，值得注意的是该头置式或桌面式眼动跟踪技术可以组合使用的触摸屏的视觉检测模式以捕获精确录制品作为参与者搜索目标刺激。眼球追踪产生的不仅仅是延迟，触摸屏，它也产生对延迟数据先注视目标，总的注视和固定的时间，以每分心之前先行了吧目标，并等待从第一固定到作出行为反应11。通过这些措施之间的区别，研究人员可以消除歧义，推动快速检测的潜在机制。例如，一个感性优势为目标的刺激可通过分析延迟到第一个注视目标刺激进行检查。如果有一个感性的优势，一些刺激过别人，延迟先注视这些目标应该是比其他的目标更快。 àutomaticity搜索，或“蹦出来”，还可以用眼睛跟踪器通过检查每一个参与者注视它们到达目标之前分心的数量来衡量。如果自动发生某些目标刺激的搜索，学员应达到这些目标之前扫描较少分心。眼睛跟踪器还可以用来检查的行为响应效率 ，测量延迟到从参与者第一次注视目标时触摸屏幕。如果在行为上回应了某些目标刺激的优点，参与者应该更快做出后的第一次行了吧这些目标的行为反应（ 例如 ，轻触屏幕上的目标）。混合模型可以为Used的分析，使得每个固定可以在分析中可以使用眼睛跟踪数据。 检测在学前儿童和成人模式 使用触摸屏检测模式既儿童和成人参与先前的研究一致显示，各年龄段的学员发现危险刺激的速度比不具威胁性的刺​​激。在使用过程中的原始论文中，作者（分别为花，青蛙，毛毛虫）研究发现蛇与各种非威胁性的刺​​激。在用于实验1的过程中，参与者无论是检测到其中8花一个蛇或在8蛇一朵鲜花在每个后续试验。与会者发现蛇的速度比鲜花，和成人比孩子更快速地检测到所有的刺激。第二个实验相比，蛇的动物是非常类似的蛇，青蛙。再次，参加检测蛇比青蛙显著更快，大人比孩子更快地检测到的所有目标。最后，第三个实验对比检测蛇其他动物的形状像蛇，毛毛虫。再次，两个年龄组检测蛇比毛虫更快，但效果只有儿童3（ 图1）显著。 <img alt="图1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52190/52190fig1highres.jpg" /> 图1表示收集起来用于实验1-3 3岁的孩子和成年人的数据，并已经被修改LoBue＆DeLoache（2008）3。在这三个实验中，3岁的孩子检测到威胁刺激（蛇）显著比各不具威胁性的刺​​激更快（花，青蛙，毛毛虫分别）。成年人表现出相同的图案，但结果仅用于实验1和2（花显著S，青蛙）。这个数字已经被修改LoBue＆DeLoache（2008）3。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52190/52190fig1highres.jpg" target="_blank">请点击这里查看该图的放大版本。</a> 总之，这些结果表明，该触摸屏范例演示了一个优点为威胁过无威胁的刺激相同的报道在以前的研究优势。此外，触摸屏模式产生跨越多个年龄组，包括成人和学龄前儿童3-5响应的相同的模式。 跨范式的比较 如何通过触摸屏操作所产生的结果进行比较，以通过经典成人按键按下检测模式产生的效果？一项研究最近试图复制对象中的按钮，按下1和3触摸屏的方法来比较模式跨越这两种模式15响应。在研究中，一组的成人进行的，按钮按压检测和触摸屏检测任务恰好两者，并对结果进行了比较。正如预期的那样，在这两个范例，参与者发现威胁目标（蛇，蜘蛛）更快速，更准确的（ 也就是说 ，他们取得了更少的错误）较不具威胁性的目标（花卉，香菇），符合使用这两种范式以前的工作。这些结果表明，该触摸屏模式的确产生的结果作为经典按钮按下程序，3-4,15的相同的图案，这表明该范例之间的微小差异（刺激，试验次数等 ）不改结果相对于威胁与非威胁刺激的检测的整体图案。 尽管有这些相似之处，也有在结果中值得注意的一个重要区别。在按钮按下过程中，水平提高克的4至9的照片的矩阵大小减缓检测无威胁的目标，而检测的威胁的目标也同样快不管集合的大小。没有这样的相互作用被发现的触摸屏模式，并且检测的威胁和非威胁目标时，从4到9的照片增加矩阵大小为慢。此外，还有一个任务响应，并根据相关性分析中的其他响应之间的关系不大。因此，研究人员应该牢记的是，虽然结果，更快的检测威胁与非威胁性的总体格局刺激了范式之间是相同的，目前还不清楚该程序是否测量相同的底层程序15（ 图2）。 <img alt="图2" src="/files/ftp_upload/52190/52190fig2highres.jpg" /> 图2表示的数据collecte<html> d个成人（和已经被修改的数字）LoBue＆马修斯（2014）15，它呈现平均延迟来检测目标刺激在按钮按下过程（实验1），并且触摸屏的过程（实验3） 。这两个过程产生的优势威胁刺激，蛇和蜘蛛，检测速度比花和蘑菇。然而，有仅由对按钮按下程序集大小相互作用靶，表明检测威胁的刺激并不受在每个矩阵分心的数目，而检测无威胁的刺激是快于2×2比在3×3矩阵。这样的相互作用未找到触摸屏程序，并且这两种类型的刺激均同样受到从4到9的照片增加矩阵的大小。这个数字已经被修改LoBue和马修斯（2014）15。2highres.jpg“目标=”_ blank将“&gt;请点击这里查看该图的放大版本。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults at JoVE.com

Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults

Here we describe a touch-screen visual search paradigm that can be used to study threat detection across the lifespan. The paradigm has already been used in various studies demonstrating that both children and adults detect threatening stimuli like snakes, spiders, and angry faces faster than non-threatening stimuli.

测量注意偏向对威胁儿童和成人

Investigators have long been interested in the human propensity for the rapid detection of threatening stimuli. However, until recently, research in this ...

measuring-attentional-biases-for-threat-in-children-and-adults

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15.2K 次观看.  Rutgers University. Here we describe a touch-screen visual search paradigm that can be used to study threat detection across the lifespan. The paradigm has already been used in various studies demonstrating that both children and adults detect threatening stimuli like snakes, spiders, and angry faces faster than non-threatening stimuli.

视频: Measuring Attentional Biases for Threat in Children and Adults

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia who are at familial high risk (FHR) may show similar cognitive and emotional changes. However, the neurological changes underlying the emergence of these symptoms remain unclear. This study sought to identify differences in frontal, striatal, and limbic regions in children and adolescents with FHR using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Groups of 21 children and adolescents at FHR and 21 healthy controls completed an emotional oddball task that relied on selective attention and the suppression of task-irrelevant emotional information. The standard oddball task was modified to include aversive and neutral distractors in order to examine potential group differences in both emotional and executive processing. This task was designed specifically to allow for children and adolescents to complete by keeping the difficulty and emotional image content age-appropriate. Furthermore, we demonstrate a technique for suitable fMRI registration for children and adolescent participants. This paradigm may also be applied in future studies to measure changes in neural activity in other populations with hypothesized developmental changes in executive and emotional processing.

This paper describes how to use the emotional oddball task and fMRI to measure brain activation in children and adolescents at familial high risk for schizophrenia (FHR).&#160;FMRI was used to measure differences in fronto-striato-limbic regions during an emotional oddball task. Children with FHR exhibited abnormal functional activation during adolescence.

的额边缘活度测量在儿童使用情绪穿着或行为古怪的任务与家族性高风险的精神分裂症

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with ...

科研

行为学

Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children

EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and signal processing make it possible to exploit information from other imaging modalities like structural MRI that provide high spatial resolution to overcome this constraint1. This is especially useful for investigations that require high resolution in the temporal as well as spatial domain. In addition, due to the easy application and low cost of EEG recordings, EEG is often the method of choice when working with populations, such as young children, that do not tolerate functional MRI scans well. However, in order to investigate which neural substrates are involved, anatomical information from structural MRI is still needed. Most EEG analysis packages work with standard head models that are based on adult anatomy. The accuracy of these models when used for children is limited2, because the composition and spatial configuration of head tissues changes dramatically over development3.&#160;
In the present paper, we provide an overview of our recent work in utilizing head models based on individual structural MRI scans or age specific head models to reconstruct the cortical generators of high density EEG. This article describes how&#160;EEG recordings are acquired, processed, and analyzed with pediatric populations at the London Baby Lab, including laboratory setup, task design, EEG preprocessing, MRI processing, and EEG channel level and source analysis.&#160;

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in estimating the cortical sources of scalp measured electrical activity for cognitive neuroscience experiments. This article describes how high density EEG is acquired and how recordings are processed for cortical source estimation in children from the age of 2 years at the London Baby Lab.

高密度的脑电图记录在儿童的皮质来源分析

EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and ...

Using the Threat Probability Task to Assess Anxiety and Fear During Uncertain and Certain Threat

Fear of certain threat and anxiety about uncertain threat are distinct emotions with unique behavioral, cognitive-attentional, and neuroanatomical components. Both anxiety and fear can be studied in the laboratory by measuring the potentiation of the startle reflex. The startle reflex is a defensive reflex that is potentiated when an organism is threatened and the need for defense is high. The startle reflex is assessed via electromyography (EMG) in the orbicularis oculi muscle elicited by brief, intense, bursts of acoustic white noise (i.e., &#8220;startle probes&#8221;). Startle potentiation is calculated as the increase in startle response magnitude during presentation of sets of visual threat cues that signal delivery of mild electric shock relative to sets of matched cues that signal the absence of shock (no-threat cues). In the Threat Probability Task, fear is measured via startle potentiation to high probability (100% cue-contingent shock; certain) threat cues whereas anxiety is measured via startle potentiation to low probability (20% cue-contingent shock; uncertain) threat cues. Measurement of startle potentiation during the Threat Probability Task provides an objective and easily implemented alternative to assessment of negative affect via self-report or other methods (e.g., neuroimaging) that may be inappropriate or impractical for some researchers. Startle potentiation has been studied rigorously in both animals (e.g., rodents, non-human primates) and humans which facilitates animal-to-human translational research. Startle potentiation during certain and uncertain threat provides an objective measure of negative affective and distinct emotional states (fear, anxiety) to use in research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse and broadly in affective science. As such, it has been used extensively by clinical scientists interested in psychopathology etiology and by affective scientists interested in individual differences in emotion.

Potentiation of the startle reflex is measured via electromyography of the orbicularis oculi muscle during low (uncertain) and high (certain) probability electric shock threat in the Threat Probability Task. This provides an objective measure of distinct negative emotional states (fear/anxiety) for research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse, and broad affective science.

使用威胁概率任务，以评估焦虑和恐惧在不确定性和一定的威胁

Fear of certain threat and anxiety about uncertain threat are distinct emotions with unique behavioral, cognitive-attentional, and neuroanatomical ...

The Attentional Set Shifting Task: A Measure of Cognitive Flexibility in Mice

Cognitive impairment, particularly involving dysfunction of circuitry within the prefrontal cortex (PFC), represents a core feature of many neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders, including depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Deficits in cognitive function also represent the most difficult symptom domain&#160;to successfully treat, as serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants have only modest effects. Functional neuroimaging studies and postmortem analysis of human brain tissue implicate the PFC as being a primary region of dysregulation in patients with these disorders. However, preclinical behavioral assays used to assess these deficits in mouse models which can be readily manipulated genetically and could provide the basis for studies of new treatment avenues have been underutilized. Here we describe the adaptation of a behavioral assay, the attentional set shifting task (AST), to be performed in mice to assess prefrontal cortex mediated cognitive deficits. The neural circuits underlying behavior during the AST are highly conserved across humans, nonhuman primates and rodents, providing excellent face, construct and predictive validity.

The goal of this protocol is to perform a behavioral assay such as the attentional set shifting task (AST) to assess prefrontal cortex-mediated cognitive flexibility in mice.

在注意定势转移任务：测量小鼠认知的灵活性

Cognitive impairment, particularly involving dysfunction of circuitry within the prefrontal cortex (PFC), represents a core feature of many ...

Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults

Adapted tango dancing improves mobility and balance in older adults and additional populations with balance impairments. It is composed of very simple step elements. Adapted tango involves movement initiation and cessation, multi-directional perturbations, varied speeds and rhythms. Focus on foot placement, whole body coordination, and attention to partner, path of movement, and aesthetics likely underlie adapted tango&#8217;s demonstrated efficacy for improving mobility and balance. In this paper, we describe the methodology to disseminate the adapted tango teaching methods to dance instructor trainees and to implement the adapted tango by the trainees in the community for older adults and individuals with Parkinson&#8217;s Disease (PD). Efficacy in improving mobility (measured with the Timed Up and Go, Tandem stance, Berg Balance Scale, Gait Speed and 30 sec chair stand), safety and fidelity of the program is maximized through targeted instructor and volunteer training and a structured detailed syllabus outlining class practices and progression.

Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson&#039;s Disease and Older Adults

Adapted tango has demonstrated efficacy for improving mobility and balance. We describe the dissemination of adapted tango teaching methods to dance instructor trainees and the implementation of adapted tango by the trainees in the community for improving mobility and balance in older adults and individuals with Parkinson&#8217;s disease.

以社区为基础改编的探戈舞的个人与帕金森氏病和老年人

Adapted tango dancing improves mobility and balance in older adults and additional populations with balance impairments. It is composed of very simple ...

A Dual Task Procedure Combined with Rapid Serial Visual Presentation to Test Attentional Blink for Nontargets

When viewers search for targets in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream, if two targets are presented within about 500 msec of each other, the first target may be easy to spot but the second is likely to be missed. This phenomenon of attentional blink (AB) has been widely studied to probe the temporal capacity of attention for detecting visual targets. However, with the typical procedure of AB experiments, it is not possible to examine how the processing of non-target items in RSVP may be affected by attention. This paper describes a novel dual task procedure combined with RSVP to test effects of AB for nontargets at varied stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs). In an exemplar experiment, a target category was first displayed, followed by a sequence of 8 nouns. If one of the nouns belonged to the target category, participants would respond &#8216;yes&#8217; at the end of the sequence, otherwise participants would respond &#8216;no&#8217;. Two 2-alternative forced choice memory tasks followed the response to determine if participants remembered the words immediately before or after the target, as well as a random word from another part of the sequence. In a second exemplar experiment, the same design was used, except that 1) the memory task was counterbalanced into two groups with SOAs of either 120 or 240 msec and 2) three memory tasks followed the sequence and tested remembrance for nontarget nouns in the sequence that could be anywhere from 3 items prior the target noun position to 3 items following the target noun position. Representative results from a previously published study demonstrate that our procedure can be used to examine divergent effects of attention that not only enhance targets but also suppress nontargets. Here we show results from a representative participant that replicated the previous finding.&#160;

This paper describes a novel dual task procedure combined with Rapid Serial Visual Presentation to look at attentional blink at varied stimulus onset asynchronies. This experimental procedure differed from others in that it tested attentional blink for nontargets.

的双任务过程结合快速系列视觉呈现到测试的注意闪烁Nontargets

When viewers search for targets in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) stream, if two targets are presented within about 500 msec of each other, the ...

The Modified Hole Board - Measuring Behavior, Cognition and Social Interaction in Mice and Rats

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure multiple dimensions of unconditioned behavior in small laboratory mammals (e.g., mice, rats, tree shrews and small primates). This paradigm is a valuable alternative for the use of a behavioral test battery, since a broad behavioral spectrum of an animal&#8217;s behavioral profile can be investigated in one single test.
The apparatus consists of a box, representing the &#8216;protected&#8217; area, separated from a group compartment. A board, on which small cylinders are staggered in three lines, is placed in the center of the box, representing the &#8216;unprotected&#8217; area of the set-up. The cognitive abilities of the animals can be measured by baiting some cylinders on the board and measuring the working and reference memory. Other unconditioned behavior, such as activity-related-, anxiety-related- and social behavior, can be observed using this paradigm. Behavioral flexibility and the ability to habituate to a novel environment can additionally be observed by subjecting the animals to multiple trials in the mHB, revealing insight into the animals&#8217; adaptive capacities.
Due to testing order effects in a behavioral test battery, na&#239;ve animals should be used for each individual experiment. By testing multiple behavioral dimensions in a single paradigm and thereby circumventing this issue, the number of experimental animals used is reduced. Furthermore, by avoiding social isolation during testing and without the need to food deprive the animals, the mHB represents a behavioral test system, inducing if any, very low amount of stress.

This protocol describes the modified hole board, which is a behavioral test set-up that comprises the characteristics of an open field and a traditional hole board. This set-up enables the differential analysis of unconditioned behavior of small laboratory mammals as well as the analysis of cognitive abilities.

修改后的孔板 - 测量行为，认知和社会互动小鼠和大鼠

This protocol describes the modified hole board (mHB), which combines features from a traditional hole board and open field and is designed to measure ...

A Treatment Package without Escape Extinction to Address Food Selectivity

Feeding difficulties and feeding disorders are a commonly occurring problem for young children, particularly children with developmental delays including autism. Behavior analytic interventions for the treatment of feeding difficulties oftentimes include escape extinction as a primary component of treatment. The use of escape extinction, while effective, may be problematic as it is also associated with the emergence of challenging behavior (e.g., extinction burst). Such challenging behavior may be an acceptable side effect in treatment cases where feeding problems are severe and chronic (e.g., failure to thrive). However, in more acute cases (e.g., selective eating), the negative side effect may be unwarranted and undesired. More recent research on the behavioral treatment of food selectivity has begun to evaluate treatments for feeding difficulties that do not include escape extinction (e.g., demand fading, behavioral momentum), with some success. However, research to date reveals individual differences in responsiveness to such treatments and no clear preferable treatment has emerged. This manuscript describes a multi-component treatment package that includes shaping, sequential presentation and simultaneous presentation, for the treatment of food selectivity in four young children with developmental delays. This treatment package extends the literature on the behavioral treatment for food selectivity and offers a multi-component treatment protocol that may be clinically applicable across a range of treatment scenarios and settings.

Feeding difficulties are a common problem for children with developmental disorders, including autism, and behavioral interventions often include escape extinction. Recent research has begun to evaluate treatments that do not include escape extinction. This manuscript describes a multicomponent treatment package that does not use escape extinction to treat feeding difficulties.

一个疗程装没有逃脱灭绝解决粮食选择性

Feeding difficulties and feeding disorders are a commonly occurring problem for young children, particularly children with developmental delays including ...

Psychophysical Tracking Method to Measure Taste Preferences in Children and Adults

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to adulthood. The method, which is identical for children, adolescents, and adults, is of short duration (&#60; 15 min), does not rely on sustained attention or place demands on memory (which would yield spurious age differences), and minimizes the impact of language development, making this method amenable to the cognitive limitations of pediatric populations. In this whole-mouth tasting method, subjects are asked to taste (without swallowing) pairs of solutions of different sucrose concentrations and to point to the solution they prefer. Each subsequent pair contains the participant&#39;s preceding preferred concentration and an adjacent stimulus concentration. The procedure continues until the subject chooses either a given concentration of sucrose when paired with both a higher and a lower concentration, or the highest or lowest concentration two consecutive times. Subjects are prevented from reaching response criteria on the basis of first or second position bias by the two-series design of the method, which counterbalances the order of solution presentation within each pair between the series (the weaker concentration is presented first in Series 1, second in Series 2). The geometric mean of the two sucrose concentrations chosen in Series 1 and 2 is an estimate of the participant&#39;s most preferred level of sucrose. Sucrose preference as determined with this laboratory-based measure has been shown to be associated with preference for sugars in foods and beverages and with taste receptor genotype, family history of alcoholism, and race/ethnicity, as well as depressive symptomatology among pediatric populations. The method has real-world relevance and has been applied to determine most preferred level of other tastes (e.g., salt), making it a valuable psychophysical tool.

Sweet taste has powerful hedonic appeal among people of all ages, particularly children. Described herein is a reliable and valid method that can be used to determine the level of sweetness most preferred, making it a valuable psychophysical tool for scientists.

心理跟踪方法来衡量儿童和成人的口味偏好

The Monell two-series, forced-choice, paired-comparison tracking method provides a reliable measure of sweet taste preferences from childhood to ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &amp;#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

评估儿童工作记忆：儿童综合评估电池 - 工作记忆（CABC-WM）

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...