Decellularized Apple-Derived Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering In Vitro and In Vivo

Summary

In this study, we detail methods of decellularization, physical characterization, imaging, and in vivo implantation of plant-based biomaterials, as well as methods for cell seeding and differentiation in the scaffolds. The described methods allow the evaluation of plant-based biomaterials for bone tissue engineering applications.

Abstract

Plant-derived cellulose biomaterials have been employed in various tissue engineering applications. In vivo studies have shown the remarkable biocompatibility of scaffolds made of cellulose derived from natural sources. Additionally, these scaffolds possess structural characteristics that are relevant for multiple tissues, and they promote the invasion and proliferation of mammalian cells. Recent research using decellularized apple hypanthium tissue has demonstrated the similarity of its pore size to that of trabecular bone as well as its ability to effectively support osteogenic differentiation. The present study further examined the potential of apple-derived cellulose scaffolds for bone tissue engineering (BTE) applications and evaluated their in vitro and in vivo mechanical properties. MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts were seeded in apple-derived cellulose scaffolds that were then assessed for their osteogenic potential and mechanical properties. Alkaline phosphatase and alizarin red S staining confirmed osteogenic differentiation in scaffolds cultured in differentiation medium. Histological examination demonstrated widespread cell invasion and mineralization across the scaffolds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed mineral aggregates on the surface of the scaffolds, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) confirmed the presence of phosphate and calcium elements. However, despite a significant increase in the Young's modulus following cell differentiation, it remained lower than that of healthy bone tissue. In vivo studies showed cell infiltration and deposition of extracellular matrix within the decellularized apple-derived scaffolds after 8 weeks of implantation in rat calvaria. In addition, the force required to remove the scaffolds from the bone defect was similar to the previously reported fracture load of native calvarial bone. Overall, this study confirms that apple-derived cellulose is a promising candidate for BTE applications. However, the dissimilarity between its mechanical properties and those of healthy bone tissue may restrict its application to low load-bearing scenarios. Additional structural re-engineering and optimization may be necessary to enhance the mechanical properties of apple-derived cellulose scaffolds for load-bearing applications.

Introduction

Large bone defects caused by an injury or disease often require biomaterial grafts for complete regeneration¹. Current techniques designed to improve bone tissue regeneration regularly use autologous, allogeneic, xenogeneic, or synthetic grafts². For autologous bone grafting, considered the "gold standard" grafting practice to repair large bone defects, bone is extracted from the patient. However, this grafting procedure has several drawbacks, including size and shape limitations, tissue availability, and sampling site morbidity³. Moreover, autologous grafting procedures are susceptib....

Protocol

The experimental protocols were reviewed and approved by the University of Ottawa Animal Care Committee.

1. Scaffold preparation

1. Use a mandolin slicer to cut McIntosh apples (Canada Fancy) into 8 mm-thick slices. Cut the hypanthium tissue of the apple slices into 5 mm x 5 mm squares.
2. Place the square samples in 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) for 2 days.
3. Wash the decellularized samples with deionized water and incubate them overnight at room t.......

Discussion

Several in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the biocompatibility of plant-derived cellulose and its potential use in tissue engineering^{14,15,16,18,19,20}, more specifically for hosting osteogenic differentiation^20,21. The objectives of.......

Materials

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole	ThermoFisher	D1306	DAPI
5-bromo-4-chloro-3'-indolyphosphate and nitro-blue tetrazolium	Sigma-Aldrich	B5655	BCIP/NBT
Alizarin red S	Sigma-Aldrich	A5533	ARS
Ascorbic acid	Sigma-Aldrich	A4403	Cell Culture
Calcium Chloride	ThermoFisher	AA12316	CaCl2
Calcofluor White	Sigma-Aldrich	18909
Dental drill			Surgical tool
Ethanol	ThermoFisher	615095000
Fetal bovine serum	Hyclone Laboratories	SH30396	FBS
Formalin	Sigma-Aldrich	HT501128	10% Formalin
Goldner's trichrome stain	Sigma-Aldrich	1.00485	GTC
Hematoxylin and eosin stain	Fisher Scientific	NC1470670	H&E
High-speed resonant confocal laser scanning microscope	Nikon	Nikon Ti-E A1-R
Hydrochloric acid	Sigma-Aldrich	258148
ImageJ software	National Institutes of Health
Irrigation saline	Baxter	JF7123	0.9% NaCl
MC3T3-E1 Subclone 4 cells	ATCC	CRL-2593	Pre-osteoblast cells
McIntosh apples			Canada Fancy grade
Methyl methacrylate	Sigma-Aldrich	M55909	Histological embedding
Minimum Essential Medium	ThermoFisher	M0894	α-MEM
Paraformaldehyde	Fisher Scientific	O4042	4%; PFA
Penicillin/Streptomycin	Hyclone Laboratories	SV30010	Cell Culture
Periodic acid	Sigma-Aldrich	375810
Phosphate buffered saline	Hyclone Laboratories	2810305	PBS; without Ca2+ and Mg2+
Propidium iodide	Invitrogen	p3566
Scanning electron microscope	JEOL	JSM-7500F FESEM	SEM and EDS
Slide scanner microscope	Zeiss	AXIOVERT 40 CFL
Sodium dodecyl sulfate	Fisher Scientific	BP166	SDS
Sodium metabisulphite	Sigma-Aldrich	31448
Sodium phosphate	ThermoFisher	BP329
Sprague-Dawley rats	Charles-River Laboratories	400	Male
Sutures	Ethicon	J494G	4-0
Trephine	ACE Surgical Supply Co	583-0182	5-mm diameter
Triton-X 100	ThermoFisher	807423
Trypsin	Hyclone Laboratories	SH30236.02	Cell Culture
Tween	Fisher Scientific	BP337
Universal compression Device	CellScale	UniVert
Von Kossa stain	Sigma-Aldrich	1.00362	Histology