<p class="jove_content"&gt; Agradecemos al Dr. Liu Shuang para la lectura crítica del manuscrito. El PCL12 construcción fue un regalo formulario Dr. Christopher D. Link. Este trabajo recibió el apoyo de dos becas de la Fundación Nacional para la Ciencia (0842708 y 1026958) y una subvención AHA (09GRNT2250529) para FS.</p

1. Construcción de gusanos transgénicos <ol><li> Transformación. <ol><li> Preparar almohadillas de inyección. Coloque una gota de caliente, 2% de agarosa disuelta en agua, sobre un cubreobjetos de vidrio. Colocar rápidamente un segundo cubreobjetos sobre la gota y golpee suavemente ella. Después de la agarosa se ha solidificado, cubreobjetos diapositivas aparte, y hornear el cubre-pad en un horno de vacío a 80 º CO / N. </li><li> Tire de pipetas. Utilizamos un P-97 Extractor Sutter tirar 1/0.5 mm OD / ID capilares de borosilicato con filamento. Las pipetas se forjan con punta cerrada que se rompe abierto en una etapa posterior. </li><li> Prepare la mezcla de inyección. Hacer la mezcla de inyección que contiene el ADN de interés (20 ng / l por construcción) más ADN de plásmido vacío a una concentración final de 150 ng / l. Centrifugar la mezcla de inyección para eliminar cualquier contaminante. Este paso es crucial, ya que los contaminantes reducen la eficiencia de transformación. Transferir el 5 l superior (escombros y otros contaminantes se acumulan en la parte inferior) a un tubo nuevo de be utilizada en la inyección. </li><li> Cargar la mezcla de inyección por capilaridad. La parte inferior de la pipeta se sumerge en la mezcla de inyección. Típicamente 0,5 l son suficientes para inyectar 100 gusanos. </li><li> Cargar pipeta de inyección. Inserte la pipeta en el soporte del micromanipulador y lo rompiera abierto por el roce de la punta contra el borde de una hoja de cubierta montada en un portaobjetos de vidrio o alternativamente contra los desechos en la plataforma de agarosa. Este es un paso crucial como consejos muy grande el daño del gusano y demasiado pequeños consejos se obstruyen fácilmente. La calidad de la punta rota puede ser juzgado por la forma y lo más importante por la tasa de flujo. La velocidad de flujo se puede evaluar por el tamaño de las burbujas que fluyen desde la punta abierta inmerso en una gota de aceite de halocarbono 700 en respuesta a una presión de inyección. </li><li> Traslado gusanos para rellenar inyección. Ponga una gota de aceite de hidrocarburo halogenado 700 en una plataforma de inyección y transferir varios (1 o 2 para principiantes) gusanos para el aceite. Utilice un gusano recoger a empujar los gusanos hacia abajo sobre la almohadilla hasta que lay se adhieren a la agarosa. Los gusanos deben estar orientadas en filas con lados ventrales en la misma dirección. Evite tocar la cabeza del gusano. Si después de varios intentos de los gusanos no se adhieren a la almohadilla, reemplazar con una almohadilla fresca o aumentar agarosa espesor y / o concentración. </li><li> Inserte la pipeta en el gusano. Al mover la etapa, colocar el gusano debajo de la pipeta. Coloque la pipeta en el núcleo central de la gónada porque su citoplasma es compartida por muchos núcleos de células germinales. Esto aumenta la probabilidad de entregar ADN inyectado a muchos progenie. La pipeta debe estar casi en paralelo al tornillo sin fin (~ 15 ° -25 ° de ángulo). Empuje verticalmente la punta de la pipeta hacia abajo el cuerpo del gusano hasta que se presiona la piel. A continuación, toque suavemente en el manipulador para inducir la inserción de la punta. Para obtener los mejores resultados inyectar ambas gónadas. </li><li> Se inyecta la solución de ADN. Aplique presión sobre la pipeta hasta que las olas gónadas. Detener el flujo y tire el gusano de la pipeta. Prueba de la aguja para el flujo y luego pasara la siguiente gusano y etapas de inyección de repetición. </li><li> Recuperar los gusanos: Añadir una gota (~ 10 l) de tampón de recuperación en los gusanos y se incuba hasta que los gusanos comienzan a nadar. Añadir un volumen igual de M9, espere hasta que los gusanos reanudar natación y repetir varias veces hasta que la solución es principalmente M9. Transferir individualmente gusanos de placas sembradas. </li></ol></li><li> Integración. <ol><li> Coloque 40 sanos, bien alimentados, L4 gusanos en un plato fresco </li><li> Irradiar con γ-ray con 4.000 rads de 40 min. Traslado gusanos irradiados (P0), en placas sembradas OP50 frescas (4 gusanos / placa). Los gusanos, alternativamente, pueden ser irradiados con una dosis de 300 J / m 2 UVs. </li><li> Traslado 10-20 transformantes F1 de cada placa para placas individuales, etiquetar las placas con el correspondiente origen P0. </li><li> Individual a cabo 2-4 transformantes F2 para cada F1 para placas separadas. Comprobar la progenie F3 para la transmisión de 100% del marcador de transformación. Por lo general, el 1-3% de la progenie de un wil gusano irradiadoTengo un evento de integración. </li><li> Hacer existencias de tres o más líneas transformantes independientes. </li></ol></li></ol> 2. Los ensayos de comportamiento <ol><li> Edad-sincronización. <ol><li> Crecer gusanos en estándar 10 cm placas NGM + OP50 E. coli hasta una gran población de adultos grávidas se alcanza (3-5 días). </li><li> Recoja los gusanos en tubos Falcon de 50 ml de suspensión en 1 ml de tampón M9. </li><li> Añadir 5 ml de tampón M9 y se centrifuga a 450 g durante 3 min. Desechar el sobrenadante. Repita 3-4x. </li><li> Al final de la última centrifugación, eliminar el sobrenadante y añadir 10 volúmenes de solución de hipoclorito básica (NaOH 0,5 M, 1% de hipoclorito recién mezclado) a los gusanos sedimentadas. Incubar a temperatura ambiente durante ~ 10 min. La reacción de lisis se puede controlar mediante la colocación de una gota de la reacción de lisis en un cubreobjetos y el examen de los gusanos bajo un microscopio. Cuando más o menos 80% de los gusanos están rotos la reacción debe ser detenido. </li><li> Detenga la reacción de lisis por complementog el mismo volumen de tampón de huevo estéril. </li><li> Recoger los huevos (y canales) por centrifugación a 450 xg durante 5 min. </li><li> Lavar los huevos con tampón estéril huevo 2-3x. </li><li> Incubar los huevos O / N en tampón M9 y sembrarlos en placas NGM estándar. </li></ol></li><li> Ensayo de quimiotaxis. <ol><li> Prepare varias piezas de agar aproximadamente 0.5x0.5x0.5 cm. Depositamos el agar en una placa de 10 cm y cortamos los trozos de agar a partir de ahí. </li><li> Remojar el trozo de agar en una solución que contiene el atrayente deseada (en concentraciones saturantes, cerca-saturantes) durante 2 horas. Atrayentes típicos son lisina (0,5 M), biotina (0,2 M). </li><li> Depositar un trozo de agar en una placa de ensayo de 10 cm en la que se han marcado la ubicación de un punto de prueba y un punto de control (Figura 1A). Permitir equilibración y la formación de un gradiente de O / N (Figura 1B). Preparar 5 placas para un solo experimento. </li><li> Antes del experimento añadir 10 l de 20 mM NaN 3 (anesthetic) para cada punto. </li><li> Coloque 20 gusanos edad sincronizados en el centro de la placa. Colocar la placa en la incubadora a 20 ° C. </li><li> Después de 1 hora, contar los animales en los puntos de prueba / control y calcular el índice de quimiotaxis (CI) de la siguiente manera: <img alt="Ecuación 1" fo:content-width=".863in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50435/50435eq1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50435/50435eq1.jpg" /> donde N, test N y N Cnt., indican que el número total de animales, el número de animales en el área de análisis y el número de animales en el punto de control. </li></ol></li></ol> 3. Primaria embrionarias de cultivo celular <ol><li> Lyse gusanos como se describe en la edad de sincronización. </li><li> Detener la reacción mediante la adición de lisis el mismo volumen de tampón de huevo estéril y se centrifuga a 450 xg durante 5 min. Deseche con cuidado el sobrenadante, teniendo cuidado de no perder los huevos sedimentadas. Repita 2 a 3 veces o hasta que sobrenadante quede claro. </li><li> Resuspender pellet (huevos y cadáveres) En 2 ml de tampón de huevo estéril y añadir 2 ml de sacarosa al 60% estéril en tampón de huevo. Mezclar esta solución hasta que los huevos se resuspendieron completamente (ya que tienden a formar grumos bajo centrifugación) a mano o por agitación. </li><li> Centrifugar a 450 xg durante 15 min. </li><li> Transferir cuidadosamente el sobrenadante (que contiene los huevos) a un tubo estéril. Descartar sedimento que contiene canales y otras sub-productos de la lisis. </li><li> Retire sacarosa residual mediante resuspensión en tampón de los huevos de huevo y centrifugación a 450 xg durante 5 min. Recoger con cuidado y desechar el sobrenadante. Repita 3 veces. </li><li> Bajo una campana laminar resuspender huevos sedimentadas en tampón de huevo estéril que contiene 1 U / ml quitinasa a temperatura ambiente para digerir las cáscaras de huevo. Después de 30 min empieza a controlar la reacción (bajo un microscopio de cultivo de células invertida). Cada lote de quitinasa tiene una actividad ligeramente diferente. Típicamente, la digestión se completó en 1 hr. </li><li> Cuando aproximadamente 70-80% cáscaras de huevo son digeridos por quitinasa complemento CM-15 (L-15 de cultivo celular medio que contiene 10% de suero bovino fetal, 50 U / ml de penicilina, y 50 mg / ml de estreptomicina). Disociar las células utilizando una jeringa con un calibre de 27. Se filtra la suspensión de células con un filtro de 5,0 micras para eliminar embriones intactos, grupos de células y larvas. </li><li> Pellet la suspensión de células disociadas por centrifugación a 450 xg durante 15 min. Eliminar el sobrenadante y resuspender el pellet en 15-CM medio de cultivo celular. </li><li> Células disociadas Plate sobre cubreobjetos de vidrio previamente revestidas con lectina de cacahuete (0,1 mg / ml) disuelto en agua Nota:. Células deben adherirse al sustrato con el fin de diferenciar. </li><li> Las células se pueden mantener a temperatura ambiente (16-20 ° C) en aire durante más de 2 semanas. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Hardy, J., Allsop, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amyloid+deposition+as+the+central+event+in+the+aetiology+of+Alzheimer's+disease.">Amyloid deposition as the central event in the aetiology of Alzheimer's disease.</a> Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 12 (10), 383-388 (1991).</li><li>Kotzbauer, P. T., Trojanowsk, J. Q., Lee, V. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lewy+body+pathology+in+Alzheimer's+disease.">Lewy body pathology in Alzheimer's disease.</a> Journal of Molecular Neuroscience. 17 (2), 225-232 (2001).</li><li>Greenberg, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inclusion+body+myositis:+review+of+recent+literature.">Inclusion body myositis: review of recent literature.</a> Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. 9 (1), 83-89 (2009).</li><li>Revesz, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sporadic+and+familial+cerebral+amyloid+angiopathies.">Sporadic and familial cerebral amyloid angiopathies.</a> Brain Pathology. 12 (3), 343-357 (2002).</li><li>Hartmann, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+sites+of+intracellular+production+for+Alzheimer's+disease+A+beta40/42+amyloid+peptides.">Distinct sites of intracellular production for Alzheimer's disease A beta40/42 amyloid peptides.</a> Nature Medicine. 3 (9), 1016-1020 (1997).</li><li>Ohnishi, S., Takano, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amyloid+fibrils+from+the+viewpoint+of+protein+folding.">Amyloid fibrils from the viewpoint of protein folding.</a> Cellular and Molecular Life sciences: CMLS. 61 (5), 511-524 (2004).</li><li>DL, R. i. d. d. l. e., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=C.+elegans+II.">C. elegans II.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Monograph. 1, 1222 (1997).</li><li>Cotella, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toxic+role+of+k++channel+oxidation+in+Mammalian+brain.">Toxic role of k+ channel oxidation in Mammalian brain.</a> The Journal of Neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 32 (12), 4133-4144 (2012).</li><li>Link, C. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+human+beta-amyloid+peptide+in+transgenic+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Expression of human beta-amyloid peptide in transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 92 (20), 9368-9372 (1995).</li><li>Cai, S. Q., Sesti, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidation+of+a+potassium+channel+causes+progressive+sensory+function+loss+during+aging.">Oxidation of a potassium channel causes progressive sensory function loss during aging.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 12 (5), 611-617 (2009).</li><li>Yu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guanylyl+cyclase+expression+in+specific+sensory+neurons:+a+new+family+of+chemosensory+receptors.">Guanylyl cyclase expression in specific sensory neurons: a new family of chemosensory receptors.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 3384-3387 (1997).</li><li>Bargmann, C. I., Horvitz, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemosensory+neurons+with+overlapping+functions+direct+chemotaxis+to+multiple+chemicals+in+C.+elegans.">Chemosensory neurons with overlapping functions direct chemotaxis to multiple chemicals in C. elegans.</a> Neuron. 7 (5), 729-742 (1991).</li><li>Caserta, T. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Q-VD-OPh,+a+broad+spectrum+caspase+inhibitor+with+potent+antiapoptotic+properties.">Q-VD-OPh, a broad spectrum caspase inhibitor with potent antiapoptotic properties.</a> Apoptosis : an international journal on programmed cell death. 8 (4), 345-352 (2003).</li><li>Christensen, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+primary+culture+system+for+functional+analysis+of+C.+elegans+neurons+and+muscle+cells.">A primary culture system for functional analysis of C. elegans neurons and muscle cells.</a> Neuron. 33 (4), 503-514 (2002).</li></ol>

Los autores declaran que no tienen intereses financieros en competencia.

Aquí se describe un enfoque combinado, para estudiar los aspectos celulares y moleculares de amylopathies utilizando C. elegans. Las ventajas de este enfoque incluyen:. 1) bajo costo C.elegans se mantiene en la placa de Petri normal de sembrado con bacterias, a temperatura ambiente. 2) genética potentes. Los animales transgénicos pueden obtenerse en pocos meses y una amplia gama de secuencias de promotor está disponible para conducir la expresión del gen deseado en las neuronas específicas. 3), b...

Beta amiloide (Aß) es un péptido de 36-43 aminoácidos que se forma después de la escisión secuencial de la proteína precursora de amiloide (APP) por β y γ secretasas 1. La secretasa γ procesa el extremo C-terminal del péptido Aß y es responsable de sus longitudes variables 5. Las formas más comunes de Aß son Aß 40 y Ap 42, siendo esta última más comúnmente asociado a condiciones patológicas tales como 5 AD. A altas concentraciones de Aß forma β-hojas que se agregan para formar fibrillas amiloides 6. Depósitos de fibrillas son el principal componente de las placas seniles que rodean las neuronas. Ambas placas y difusibles, oligómeros Aß no la placa, se cree que constituyen las formas patogénicas subyacentes de Aß. El estudio de laboratorio de amylopathies neuronales se complica por el hecho de que estas condiciones de progreso con el tiempo. Por lo tanto, es IMPORTANTESt para el desarrollo de animales genéticamente manejable modelos complementarios a los ratones-con vida corta. Estos modelos se pueden utilizar para elucidar aspectos específicos de amylopathies-típicamente celular y molecular y en virtud de su simplicidad, para ayudar a capturar la esencia del problema. El gusano Caenorhabditis elegans cataratas es esta categoría. Tiene una vida corta, ~ 20 días y, además, los procesos celulares básicos como la regulación de la expresión génica, el tráfico de proteínas, la conectividad neuronal, sinaptogénesis, la señalización celular y la muerte son similares a los mamíferos 7. Las características únicas del gusano incluyen la genética de gran alcance y la falta de un sistema de vasos, lo que permite estudiar el daño neuronal independientemente del daño vascular. Por otro lado, la falta de un cerebro limita el uso de C. elegans para estudiar muchos aspectos de la neurodegeneración. Además, la reproducción y la identificación de las distribuciones anatómicas de las lesiones no se pueden realizar en este organismo. Otro límiteciones incluyen la dificultad para evaluar tanto las diferencias en los perfiles de expresión génica y alteraciones de la conducta compleja y la función de la memoria. A continuación se describen los métodos para generar C. modelos elegans de amylopathies.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>1. NGM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5886</td>
			<td>3 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacteriological agar</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>J637</td>
			<td>17 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacto-peptone</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>J636</td>
			<td>2.5 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled Water</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Bring to 975 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Sterilized by autoclaving, then add the following items and mix well</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2643</td>
			<td>1 ml of 1 M stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5670</td>
			<td>1 ml of 1 M stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cholesterol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C3045</td>
			<td>1 ml of 5 mg/ml stock( in ethanol)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate buffer</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>25 ml of 1M stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>2. Potassium phosphate buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5655</td>
			<td>108.3 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3786</td>
			<td>35.6 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled Water</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Bring to 1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Sterilized by autoclaving</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>3. M9 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5655</td>
			<td>3 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5136</td>
			<td>6 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5886</td>
			<td>5 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2643</td>
			<td>1 ml of 1 M stock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled Water</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Bring to 1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Sterilized by autoclaving</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>4. Egg buffer (pH 7.3, 340 mOsm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5886</td>
			<td>118 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P5405</td>
			<td>48 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5670</td>
			<td>2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M4880</td>
			<td>2 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP310</td>
			<td>25 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Distilled Water</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Bring to 1 L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Sterilized by autoclaving</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>5. CM-15</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-15 culture medium</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11415</td>
			<td>450 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10437-028</td>
			<td>50 ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140</td>
			<td>50 units/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140</td>
			<td>50 g/ml</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Adjust to 340 mOsm with sucrose then sterile filter into autoclaved bottles and store at 4 &deg;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>6. Other Reagents</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halocarbon 700 oil</td>
			<td>Halocarbon Products</td>
			<td>9002-83-9</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 &mu;m Acrodisc Syringe Filter</td>
			<td>PALL Co.</td>
			<td>4199</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chitinase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C6137-5UN</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lectin (peanut)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L0881-10MG</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S320</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L5501</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>B4639</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hypochlorite solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>425044</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium azide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>71289</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S0389</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a caenorhabditis elegans model system for amylopathy study

Amylopathy es un término que describe la síntesis y la acumulación anormal de la proteína beta amiloide (Aß) en los tejidos con el tiempo. Aß es un sello distintivo de la enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA) y se encuentra en la demencia con cuerpos de Lewy, la miositis de cuerpos de inclusión y la angiopatía amiloide cerebral 1-4. Amylopathies desarrollan progresivamente con el tiempo. Por esta razón organismos simples con periodos de vida cortos pueden ayudar a dilucidar los aspectos moleculares de estas condiciones. A continuación, se describen los protocolos experimentales para el estudio de la neurodegeneración mediada por Aß usando el gusano Caenorhabditis elegans. Así, construimos gusanos transgénicos mediante la inyección de ADN que codifica Aß humano 42 en las gónadas sincitial de adultos hermafroditas. Líneas transformantes se estabilizan mediante una integración mutagénesis inducida. Los nematodos son la edad sincronizado mediante la recolección y la siembra de sus huevos. La función de las neuronas que expresan Aß 42 se prueba en ensayos de comportamiento oportunos (ensayo de quimiotaxiss). Cultivos neuronales primarios obtenidos a partir de embriones se utilizan para complementar los datos de comportamiento y para probar los efectos neuroprotectores de los compuestos anti-apoptóticas.

Con nuestros protocolos se estudian los efectos de los humanos Aß 42 oligómero en la función neuronal 8. Un fragmento que codifica Aß humano 42 y la secuencia de codificación del péptido señal artificial de fuego vector de pPD50.52 se amplificó a partir constructo PCL12 9 usando cebadores que introdujeron un Sma 1 sitio de endonucleasa de restricción en los extremos. El fragmento se inserta en un constructo que contiene un FLP-6 secuencia del promotor de 2481...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study at JoVE.com

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

Se describen métodos para estudiar los aspectos de la amylopathies en el gusano<em&gt; C. elegans</em&gt;. Mostramos cómo construir gusanos expresan Aß humano<sub&gt; 42</sub&gt; En las neuronas y la forma de poner a prueba su función en ensayos de comportamiento. Además, muestran cómo obtener cultivos neuronales primarios que pueden ser utilizados para las pruebas farmacológicas.

La<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em&gt; Sistema Modelo para el Estudio Amylopathy

Amylopathy is a term that describes abnormal synthesis and accumulation of amyloid beta (A&beta;) in tissues with time. A&beta; is a hallmark of ...

a-caenorhabditis-elegans-model-system-for-amylopathy-study

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

10.4K vistas.  University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. Se describen métodos para estudiar los aspectos de la amylopathies en el gusano C. elegans. Mostramos cómo construir gusanos expresan Aß humano 42 En las neuronas y la forma de poner a prueba su función en ensayos de comportamiento. Además, muestran cómo obtener cultivos neuronales primarios que pueden ser utilizados para las pruebas farmacológicas.

Video: A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

Assaying &beta;-amyloid Toxicity using a Transgenic C. elegans Model

Accumulation of the &beta;-amyloid peptide (A&beta;) is generally believed to be central to the induction of Alzheimer's disease, but the relevant mechanism(s) of toxicity are still unclear. A&beta; is also deposited intramuscularly in Inclusion Body Myositis, a severe human myopathy. The intensely studied nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans can be transgenically engineered to express human A&beta;. Depending on the tissue or timing of A&beta; expression, transgenic worms can have readily measurable phenotypes that serve as a read-out of A&beta; toxicity. For example, transgenic worms with pan-neuronal A&beta; expression have defects is associative learning (Dosanjh et al. 2009), while transgenic worms with constitutive muscle-specific expression show a progressive, age-dependent paralysis phenotype (Link, 1995; Cohen et al. 2006). One particularly useful C. elegans model employs a temperature-sensitive mutation in the mRNA surveillance system to engineer temperature-inducible muscle expression of an A&beta; transgene, resulting in a reproducible paralysis phenotype upon temperature upshift (Link et al. 2003). Treatments that counter A&beta; toxicity in this model [e.g., expression of a protective transgene (Hassan et al. 2009) or exposure to Ginkgo biloba extracts (Wu et al. 2006)] reproducibly alter the rate of paralysis induced by temperature upshift of these transgenic worms. Here we describe our protocol for measuring the rate of paralysis in this transgenic C. elegans model, with particular attention to experimental variables that can influence this measurement.

Assaying &#946;-amyloid Toxicity using a Transgenic C. elegans Model

The intensely studied nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans can be transgenically engineered to express the human &beta;-amyloid peptide (A&beta;). Induced expression of A&beta; in C. elegans muscle leads to a rapid, reproducible paralysis phenotype that can be used to monitor treatments that modulate A&beta; toxicity.

Ensayo β-amiloide toxicidad con un transgénico C. elegans Modelo

Accumulation of the &beta;-amyloid peptide (A&beta;) is generally believed to be central to the induction of Alzheimer's disease, but the relevant ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Methods for Studying the Mechanisms of Action of Antipsychotic Drugs in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a simple genetic organism amenable to large-scale forward and reverse genetic screens and chemical genetic screens. The C. elegans genome includes potential antipsychotic drug (APD) targets conserved in humans, including genes encoding proteins required for neurotransmitter synthesis and for synaptic structure and function. APD exposure produces developmental delay and/or lethality in nematodes in a concentration-dependent manner. These phenotypes are caused, in part, by APD-induced inhibition of pharyngeal pumping1,2. Thus, the developmental phenotype has a neuromuscular basis, making it useful for pharmacogenetic studies of neuroleptics. Here we demonstrate detailed procedures for testing APD effects on nematode development and pharyngeal pumping. For the developmental assay, synchronized embryos are placed on nematode growth medium (NGM) plates containing APDs, and the stages of developing animals are then scored daily. For the pharyngeal pumping rate assay, staged young adult animals are tested on NGM plates containing APDs. The number of pharyngeal pumps per unit time is recorded, and the pumping rate is calculated. These assays can be used for studying many other types of small molecules or even large molecules.

Methods for Studying the Mechanisms of Action of Antipsychotic Drugs in Caenorhabditis elegans

Approaches for testing the effects of antipsychotic drugs (APDs) in Caenorhabditis elegans are demonstrated. Assays are described for testing drug effects on development and viability and on pharyngeal pumping rate. These methods are also applicable for pharmacogenetic experiments with drug classes other than APDs.

Métodos para el estudio de los mecanismos de acción de los fármacos antipsicóticos en<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

Caenorhabditis elegans is a simple genetic organism amenable to  large-scale forward and reverse genetic screens and chemical genetic screens. The C.  ...

The Olfactory System as a Model to Study Axonal Growth Patterns and Morphology In Vivo

The olfactory system has the unusual capacity to generate new neurons throughout the lifetime of an organism. Olfactory stem cells in the basal portion of the olfactory epithelium continuously give rise to new sensory neurons that extend their axons into the olfactory bulb, where they face the challenge to integrate into existing circuitry. Because of this particular feature, the olfactory system represents a unique opportunity to monitor axonal wiring and guidance, and to investigate synapse formation. Here we describe a procedure for in vivo labeling of sensory neurons and subsequent visualization of axons in the olfactory system of larvae of the amphibian Xenopus laevis. To stain sensory neurons in the olfactory organ we adopt the electroporation technique. In vivo electroporation is an established technique for delivering fluorophore-coupled dextrans or other macromolecules into living cells. Stained sensory neurons and their axonal processes can then be monitored in the living animal either using confocal laser-scanning or multiphoton microscopy. By reducing the number of labeled cells to few or single cells per animal, single axons can be tracked into the olfactory bulb and their morphological changes can be monitored over weeks by conducting series of in vivo time lapse imaging experiments. While the described protocol exemplifies the labeling and monitoring of olfactory sensory neurons, it can also be adopted to other cell types within the olfactory and other systems.

The Olfactory System as a Model to Study Axonal Growth Patterns and Morphology In Vivo

We describe a protocol for in vivo labeling of olfactory sensory neurons by electroporation and subsequent confocal laser-scanning or multiphoton microscopy to visualize neuronal morphology and its development over time.

El sistema olfativo como un modelo para estudiar los patrones de crecimiento axonal y Morfología<em&gt; En Vivo</em

The olfactory system has the unusual capacity to generate new neurons throughout the lifetime of an organism. Olfactory stem cells in the basal portion of ...

An Assay for Measuring the Effects of Ethanol on the Locomotion Speed of Caenorhabditis elegans

Alcohol use disorders are a significant public health concern, for which there are few effective treatment strategies. One difficulty that has delayed the development of more effective treatments is the relative lack of understanding of the molecular underpinnings of the effects of ethanol on behavior. The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans (C.&#160;elegans), provides a useful model in which to generate and test hypotheses about the molecular effects of ethanol. Here, we describe an assay that has been developed and used to examine the roles of particular genes and environmental factors in behavioral responses to ethanol, in which locomotion is the behavioral output. Ethanol dose-dependently causes an acute depression of crawling on an agar surface. The effects are dynamic; animals exposed to a high concentration demonstrate an initial strong depression of crawling, referred to here as initial sensitivity, and then partially recover locomotion speed despite the continued presence of the drug. This ethanol-induced behavioral plasticity is referred to here as the development of acute functional tolerance. This assay has been used to demonstrate that these two phenotypes are distinct and genetically separable. The straightforward locomotion assay described here is suitable for examining the effects of both genetic and environmental manipulations on these acute behavioral responses to ethanol in C.&#160;elegans.

An Assay for Measuring the Effects of Ethanol on the Locomotion Speed of Caenorhabditis elegans

C. elegans is a useful model for studying the effects of ethanol on behavior. We present a behavioral assay that quantifies the effects of ethanol on the locomotion speed of crawling worms; both initial sensitivity and the development of acute functional tolerance to ethanol can be measured with this assay.

Un ensayo para medir los efectos del etanol sobre la velocidad de locomoción<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

Alcohol use disorders are a significant public health concern, for which there are few effective treatment strategies. One difficulty that has delayed the ...

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure the activity of neurons during various behaviors. To correlate neural activity with behavior, the animal should not be immobilized but should be able to move. Many behavioral changes occur during long time scales and require recording over many hours of behavior. This also makes it necessary to culture the worms in the presence of food. How can worms be cultured and their neural activity imaged over long time scales? Agarose Microchamber Imaging (AMI) was previously developed to culture and observe small larvae and has now been adapted to study all life stages from early L1 until the adult stage of C. elegans. AMI can be performed on various life stages of C. elegans. Long-term calcium imaging is achieved without immobilizing the animals by using short externally triggered exposures combined with an electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera recording. Zooming out or scanning can scale up this method to image up to 40 worms in parallel. Thus, a method is described to image behavior and neural activity over long time scales in all life stages of C. elegans.

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Imaging behavior and neural activity over long time scales without immobilization of the animal is a prerequisite to understand behavior. Agarose microfluidic chambers imaging (AMI) can be used to image neural activity and behavior for all life stages of Caenorhabditis elegans.

Microcámaras de agarosa para Imagen de calcio a largo plazo de<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure ...

Novel Metrics to Characterize Embryonic Elongation of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Dissecting the signaling pathways that control the alteration of morphogenic processes during embryonic development requires robust and sensitive metrics. Embryonic elongation of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a late developmental stage consisting of the elongation of the embryo along its longitudinal axis. This developmental stage is controlled by intercellular communication between hypodermal cells and underlying body-wall muscles. These signaling mechanisms control the morphology of hypodermal cells by remodeling the cytoskeleton and the cell-cell junctions. Measurement of embryonic lethality and developmental arrest at larval stages as well as alteration of cytoskeleton and cell-cell adhesion structures in hypodermal and muscle cells are classical phenotypes that have been used for more than 25 years to dissect these signaling pathways. Recent studies required the development of novel metrics specifically targeting either early or late elongation and characterizing morphogenic defects along the antero-posterior axis of the embryo. Here, we provide detailed protocols enabling the accurate measurement of the length and the width of the elongating embryos as well as the length of synchronized larvae. These methods constitute useful tools to identify genes controlling elongation, to assess whether these genes control both early and late phases of this stage and are required evenly along the antero-posterior axis of the embryo.

Novel Metrics to Characterize Embryonic Elongation of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Here we detail protocols specifically designed to monitor morphogenic defects that occur during early and late phases of embryonic elongation of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Ultimately, these protocols are designed to identify genes that regulate these phases and to characterize their differential requirements along the antero-posterior axis of the embryo.

Las métricas para caracterizar nuevos embrionarias Alargamiento del nematodo<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

Dissecting the signaling pathways that control the alteration of morphogenic processes during embryonic development requires robust and sensitive metrics. ...

A Caenorhabditis elegans Nutritional-status Based Copper Aversion Assay

To ensure survival, organisms must be capable of avoiding unfavorable habitats while ensuring a consistent food source. Caenorhabditis elegans alter their locomotory patterns upon detection of diverse environmental stimuli and can modulate their suite of behavioral responses in response to starvation conditions. Nematodes typically exhibit a decreased aversive response when removed from a food source for over 30 min. Observation of behavioral changes in response to a changing nutritional status can provide insight into the mechanisms that regulate the transition from a well-fed to starved state.
We have developed an assay that measures a nematode&#39;s ability to cross an aversive barrier (i.e. copper) then reach a food source over a prolonged period of time. This protocol builds upon previous work by integrating multiple variables in a manner that allows for continued data collection as the organisms shift towards an increasingly starved condition. Moreover, this assay permits an increased sample size so that larger populations of nematodes can be simultaneously evaluated.
Organisms defective for the ability to detect or respond to copper immediately cross the chemical barrier, while wild type nematodes are initially repelled. As wild type worms are increasingly starved, they begin to cross the barrier and reach the food source. We designed this assay to evaluate a mutant that is incapable of responding to diverse environmental cues, including food sensation or detection of aversive chemicals. When evaluated via this protocol, the defective organisms immediately crossed the barrier, but were also incapable of detecting a food source. Hence, these mutants repeatedly cross the chemical barrier despite temporarily reaching a food source. This assay can straightforwardly test populations of worms to evaluate potential pathway defects related to aversion and starvation.

A Caenorhabditis elegans Nutritional-status Based Copper Aversion Assay

Here, we present a Caenorhabditis elegans-specific assay designed to evaluate changes in copper aversion behavior and the ability to locate a common food source, as the organism progresses from a well-fed to starved nutritional state.

UN<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em&gt; Ensayo de aversión al cobre basado en el estado nutricional

To ensure survival, organisms must be capable of avoiding unfavorable habitats while ensuring a consistent food source. Caenorhabditis elegans alter their ...

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized animals. Highly sensitive, genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of Ca2+ have revolutionized the recording of cell and synaptic activity using non-invasive optical approaches in behaving animals. When combined with genetic and optogenetic techniques, the molecular mechanisms that modulate cell and circuit activity during different behavior states can be identified.
Here we describe methods for ratiometric Ca2+ imaging of single neurons in freely behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. We demonstrate a simple mounting technique that gently overlays worms growing on a standard Nematode Growth Media (NGM) agar block with a glass coverslip, permitting animals to be recorded at high-resolution during unrestricted movement and behavior. With this technique, we use the sensitive Ca2+ reporter GCaMP5 to record changes in intracellular Ca2+ in the serotonergic Hermaphrodite Specific Neurons (HSNs) as they drive egg-laying behavior. By co-expressing mCherry, a Ca2+-insensitive fluorescent protein, we can track the position of the HSN within ~ 1 &#181;m and correct for fluctuations in fluorescence caused by changes in focus or movement. Simultaneous, infrared brightfield imaging allows for behavior recording and animal tracking using a motorized stage. By integrating these microscopic techniques and data streams, we can record Ca2+ activity in the C. elegans egg-laying circuit as it progresses between inactive and active behavior states over tens of minutes.

Ratiometric Calcium Imaging of Individual Neurons in Behaving Caenorhabditis Elegans

This protocol describes the use of genetically encoded Ca2+ reporters to record changes in neural activity in behaving Caenorhabditis elegans worms. &#8195;

Imagen radiométrica calcio de neuronas individuales en comportamiento Caenorhabditis Elegans

It has become increasingly clear that neural circuit activity in behaving animals differs substantially from that seen in anesthetized or immobilized ...

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are specialized sites of synaptic innervation modulated by activity and serve as substrates for learning and memory. Recently, dendritic spines have been described for DD GABAergic neurons as the input sites from presynaptic cholinergic neurons in the motor circuit of Caenorhabditis elegans. This synaptic circuit can now serve as a powerful new in vivo model of spine morphogenesis and function that exploits the facile genetics and ready accessibility of C. elegans to live-cell imaging. 
This protocol describes experimental strategies for assessing DD spine structure and function. In this approach, a super-resolution imaging strategy is used to visualize the intricate shapes of actin-rich dendritic spines. To evaluate the DD spine function, the light-activated opsin, Chrimson, stimulates the presynaptic cholinergic neurons, and the calcium indicator, GCaMP, reports the evoked calcium transients in postsynaptic DD spines. Together, these methods comprise powerful approaches for identifying genetic determinants of dendritic spines in C. elegans that could also direct spine morphogenesis and function in the brain.

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are important cellular features of the nervous system. Here live imaging methods are described for assessing the structure and function of dendritic spines in C. elegans.&#160;These approaches support the development of mutant screens for genes that define dendritic spine shape or function.

Imágenes de espinas dendríticas en Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are specialized sites of synaptic innervation modulated by activity and serve as substrates for learning and memory. Recently, dendritic ...

Quantifying Levels of Dopaminergic Neuron Morphological Alteration and Degeneration in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dopamine neuron loss is involved in the pathology of Parkinson&#39;s Disease (PD), a highly prevalent neurodegenerative disorder affecting over 10 million people worldwide. Since many details about PD etiology remain unknown, studies investigating genetic and environmental contributors to PD are needed to discover methods of prevention, management, and treatment. Proper characterization of dopaminergic neuronal loss may be relevant not only to PD research, but to other increasingly prevalent neurodegenerative disorders.
There are established genetic and chemical models of dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the Caenorhabditis elegans model system, with easy visualization of neurobiology supported by the nematodes&#39; transparency and invariant neuronal architecture. In particular, hermaphroditic C. elegans&#39; dopaminergic neuron morphological changes can be visualized using strains with fluorescent reporters driven by cell-specific promotors such as the dat-1 dopamine transporter gene, which is expressed exclusively in their eight dopaminergic neurons.
With the capabilities of this model system and the appropriate technology, many laboratories have studied dopaminergic neurodegeneration. However, there is little consistency in the way the data is analyzed and much of the present literature uses binary scoring analyses that capture the presence of degeneration but not the full details of the progression of neuron loss. Here, we introduce a universal scoring system to assess morphological changes and degeneration in C. elegans&#39; cephalic neuron dendrites. This seven-point scale allows for analysis across a full range of dendrite morphology, ranging from healthy neurons to complete dendrite loss, and considering morphological details including kinks, branching, blebs, and breaks. With this scoring system, researchers can quantify subtle age-related changes as well as more dramatic chemical-induced changes. Finally, we provide a practice set of images with commentary that can be used to train, calibrate, and assess the scoring consistency of researchers new to this method. This should improve within- and between- laboratory consistency, increasing rigor and reproducibility.

Quantifying Levels of Dopaminergic Neuron Morphological Alteration and Degeneration in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this article, we showcase how to use a seven-point scoring system to consistently quantify changes to dopaminergic neuron dendrite morphology in C. elegans. This system is intended for analyses of dopaminergic neurodegeneration assays utilizing genetic, chemical, and age-based models of neurodegenerative disorders.

Cuantificación de los niveles de alteración morfológica y degeneración de la neurona dopaminérgica en Caenorhabditis elegans

Dopamine neuron loss is involved in the pathology of Parkinson&#39;s Disease (PD), a highly prevalent neurodegenerative disorder affecting over 10 million ...

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