Name: a real-world what-where-when memory test
Uploaded: 2017-05-16T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test at JoVE.com

Thank you to all the participants that have helped develop this methodology over different iterations of the task. Thank you also to all the students who helped by running the different iterations over the years: Natasha Dubes, Emma Denning, Victoria Bellhouse, Stephen Holland, Melissa Anderson, Katie Shaw, Sarah Morgan, Karla Butterworth, Michael Craig, Lauren Wray, Olivia Sanderson, Daniel Lai, Rajameenakshi Boopathy and Chun Kit Ho. This research was funded by Newcastle University's contributions to student research projects.

This protocol was approved by Newcastle University&#39;s Faculty of Medical Sciences Ethics Committee (approval number 515_1).
1. Preparation for the study
<ol>
	<li>Before running the study, gather 20 small, easily identified/described objects, e.g., 
	A tea light 
	A toy digger 
	A toy frog 
	A clothing hook 
	A spoon 
	A set of keys 
	A button 
	A lip balm 
	A toy snowman 
	A bottle cap 
	A die 
	A lighter 
	A comb<...

<ol>
	<li>Tulving, E., Tulving, E., Donaldson, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Organization of memory. , 381-403 (1972).</li><li>Tulving, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic+memory:+From+mind+to+brain.">Episodic memory: From mind to brain.</a> Rev Neurol. 160, S9-S23 (2004).</li><li>Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., Coen, R. F., O'Mara, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everyday+episodic+memory+in+amnestic+mild+cognitive+impairment:+A+preliminary+investigation.">Everyday episodic memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary investigation.</a> BMC Neurosci. 12, (2011).</li><li>Pause, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perspectives+on+Episodic-like+and+Episodic+Memory.">Perspectives on Episodic-like and Episodic Memory.</a> Front Behav Neurosci. 7, (2013).</li><li>Eichenbaum, H., Sauvage, M., Fortin, N., Komorowski, R., Lipton, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+a+functional+organization+of+episodic+memory+in+the+medial+temporal+lobe.">Towards a functional organization of episodic memory in the medial temporal lobe.</a> Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 36, 1597-1608 (2012).</li><li>Dere, E., Pause, B. M., Pietrowsky, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emotion+and+episodic+memory+in+neuropsychiatric+disorders.">Emotion and episodic memory in neuropsychiatric disorders.</a> Behav Brain Res. 215, 162-171 (2010).</li><li>Clayton, N. S., Bussey, T. J., Dickinson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+animals+recall+the+past+and+plan+for+the+future?.">Can animals recall the past and plan for the future?.</a> Nat Rev Neurosci. 4, 685-691 (2003).</li><li>Tierney, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+Rey+Auditory+Verbal+Learning+Test+in+differentiating+normal+aging+from+Alzheimer's+and+Parkinson's+dementia.">Use of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in differentiating normal aging from Alzheimer's and Parkinson's dementia.</a> Psychol Assess. 6, 129-134 (1994).</li><li>Hayne, H., Imuta, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic+memory+in+3-+and+4-year-old+children.">Episodic memory in 3- and 4-year-old children.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 53, 317-322 (2011).</li><li>Holland, S. M., Smulders, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Do+humans+use+episodic+memory+to+solve+a+What-Where-When+memory+task?.">Do humans use episodic memory to solve a What-Where-When memory task?.</a> Anim Cogn. 14, 95-102 (2011).</li><li>Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Do+different+tests+of+episodic+memory+produce+consistent+results+in+human+adults?.">Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults?.</a> Learn Mem. 20, 491-498 (2013).</li><li>Newcombe, N. S., Balcomb, F., Ferrara, K., Hansen, M., Koski, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+rooms,+two+representations?+Episodic-like+memory+in+toddlers+and+preschoolers.">Two rooms, two representations? Episodic-like memory in toddlers and preschoolers.</a> Dev Sci. 17, 743-756 (2014).</li><li>Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+six+blind+men+and+the+elephant:+Are+episodic+memory+tasks+tests+of+different+things+or+different+tests+of+the+same+thing?.">The six blind men and the elephant: Are episodic memory tasks tests of different things or different tests of the same thing?.</a> J Exp Child Psychol. 137, 164-171 (2015).</li><li>Cheke, L. G., Simons, J. S., Clayton, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Higher+BMI+is+Associated+with+Episodic+Memory+Deficits+in+Young+Adults.">Higher BMI is Associated with Episodic Memory Deficits in Young Adults.</a> Q J Exp Psychol. , 1-24 (2015).</li><li>Kwok, S. C., Macaluso, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immediate+memory+for+&amp;#34;when,+where+and+what&amp;#34;:+Short-delay+retrieval+using+dynamic+naturalistic+material.">Immediate memory for &amp;#34;when, where and what&amp;#34;: Short-delay retrieval using dynamic naturalistic material.</a> Hum Brain Map. 36, 2495-2513 (2015).</li><li>Mazurek, A., Bhoopathy, R., Read, J. C. A., Gallagher, P., Smulders, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+age+on+a+real-world+What-Where-When+memory+task.">Effects of age on a real-world What-Where-When memory task.</a> Front Aging Neurosci. 7, (2015).</li><li>Cheke, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What-where-when+memory+and+encoding+strategies+in+healthy+aging.">What-where-when memory and encoding strategies in healthy aging.</a> Learn Mem. 23, 121-126 (2016).</li><li>Zlomuzica, A., Preusser, F., Totzeck, C., Dere, E., Margraf, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+different+emotional+states+on+the+memory+for+what,+where+and+when+features+of+specific+events.">The impact of different emotional states on the memory for what, where and when features of specific events.</a> Behav Brain Res. 298 (Part B), 181-187 (2016).</li><li>Plancher, G., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., Piolino, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age+effect+on+components+of+episodic+memory+and+feature+binding:+A+virtual+reality+study.">Age effect on components of episodic memory and feature binding: A virtual reality study.</a> Neuropsychology. 24, 379-390 (2010).</li><li>Plancher, G., Tirard, A., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., Piolino, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+virtual+reality+to+characterize+episodic+memory+profiles+in+amnestic+mild+cognitive+impairment+and+Alzheimer's+disease:+Influence+of+active+and+passive+encoding.">Using virtual reality to characterize episodic memory profiles in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: Influence of active and passive encoding.</a> Neuropsychologia. 50, 592-602 (2012).</li><li>Laurent, X., Ensslin, A., Mar&#237;-Beffa, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+action+to+an+object+does+not+improve+its+episodic+encoding+but+removes+distraction.">An action to an object does not improve its episodic encoding but removes distraction.</a> J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 42, 494-507 (2016).</li><li>Craig, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+does+intentionality+of+encoding+affect+memory+for+episodic+information?.">How does intentionality of encoding affect memory for episodic information?.</a> Learn Mem. 23, 648-659 (2016).</li><li>Clayton, N. S., Dickinson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic-like+memory+during+cache+recovery+by+scrub+jays.">Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays.</a> Nature. 395, 272-274 (1998).</li><li>Skov-Rackette, S. I., Miller, N. Y., Shettleworth, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What-where-when+memory+in+pigeons.">What-where-when memory in pigeons.</a> J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 32, 345-358 (2006).</li><li>Roberts, W. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic-Like+Memory+in+Rats:+Is+It+Based+on+When+or+How+Long+Ago?.">Episodic-Like Memory in Rats: Is It Based on When or How Long Ago?.</a> Science. 320, 113-115 (2008).</li><li>Feeney, M. C., Roberts, W. A., Sherry, D. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+for+what,+where,+and+when+in+the+black-capped+chickadee+(Poecile+atricapillus).">Memory for what, where, and when in the black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus).</a> Anim Cogn. 12, 767-777 (2009).</li><li>Hoffman, M. L., Beran, M. J., Washburn, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+for+&amp;#34;What&amp;#34+&amp;#34;Where&amp;#34;,+and+&amp;#34;When&amp;#34;+Information+in+Rhesus+Monkeys+(Macaca+mulatta).">Memory for &amp;#34;What&amp;#34 &amp;#34;Where&amp;#34;, and &amp;#34;When&amp;#34; Information in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta).</a> J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 35, 143-152 (2009).</li><li>Zinkivskay, A., Nazir, F., Smulders, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What-Where-When+memory+in+magpies+(Pica+pica).">What-Where-When memory in magpies (Pica pica).</a> Anim Cogn. 12, 119-125 (2009).</li><li>Binder, S., Dere, E., Zlomuzica, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+critical+appraisal+of+the+what-where-when+episodic-like+memory+test+in+rodents:+Achievements,+caveats+and+future+directions.">A critical appraisal of the what-where-when episodic-like memory test in rodents: Achievements, caveats and future directions.</a> Prog Neurobiol. 130, 71-85 (2015).</li><li>Kinugawa, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aging-related+episodic+memory+decline:+Are+emotions+the+key?.">Aging-related episodic memory decline: Are emotions the key?.</a> Front Behav Neurosci. 7, (2013).</li><li>Pause, B. M., Jungbluth, C., Adolph, D., Pietrowsky, R., Dere, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+and+measurement+of+episodic+memories+in+healthy+adults.">Induction and measurement of episodic memories in healthy adults.</a> J Neurosci Meth. 189, 88-96 (2010).</li><li>Kessels, R. P. C., Postma, A., De Haan, E. H. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Object+Relocation:+A+program+for+setting+up,+running,+and+analyzing+experiments+on+memory+for+object+locations.">Object Relocation: A program for setting up, running, and analyzing experiments on memory for object locations.</a> Behav Res Meth, Instr, Comp. 31, 423-428 (1999).</li></ol>

The data show that performance on other tasks which are supposed to measure episodic memory predicts performance on the Real-World What-Where-When memory task as well. However, these correlations are likely to represent a shared subset of cognitive abilities used by the different tasks. The Real-World What-Where-When memory task has the advantage over these other tasks in that it tests people&#39;s memory for two actual events which happened in a real spatio-temporal context. Unlike asking people about events from their ...

Episodic memory is memory for unique events from one&#39;s own past that are experienced as a reliving of the original event (mental time travel)1,2. It is also one of the first types of memory to be affected in the early stages of many forms of dementia3,4. The medial temporal lobe, and more specifically the hippocampus, is believed to be an important structure in the processing of episodic memories5, and therefore any conditions that affect hippocampal function, like aging and many mood disorders, are also believed to affect episodic memory function. As such, episodic memory function can be a useful biomarker for a range of neurological and psychiatric conditions6.
Methods for quantifying episodic memory, however, are still less than ideal. Real-world everyday episodic memories are integrative memories of unique events in their spatiotemporal context7, usually incidentally encoded4. The two most common methods used in both the clinic and in academic research are word list learning8 and recounting a story from one&#39;s own past3. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the word lists over the story approach is that the assessor knows exactly what the right answers are. This is difficult to assess with spontaneous stories from the participant/patient&#39;s past, since often no objective evidence is available and even accounts from family members may have incorrect details in them. The advantage of the stories is that they actually assess the typical content and structure of episodic memories: events in spatiotemporal context, with information about What happened, Where and When bound together7. Word lists do not require any context to be recalled at all, and are often rehearsed several times (e.g. the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task).
Recently, several attempts have been made to construct episodic memory tasks that combine the strengths of the two classical tests while minimizing the drawbacks9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22. The current protocol is the most recent version of a What-Where-When episodic memory test which has been developed at Newcastle University10,16,22. The concept is based on the work with non-human animals, started by Clayton and Dickinson23, and adapted for work with a range of other species24,25,26,27,28, some of which have confirmed the sensitivity of this paradigm to medial temporal lobe damage29. It is one of several attempts at incorporating a What-Where-When framework in episodic memory testing with adult humans18,20,30,31, but the only one to be performed in a real environment, without the use of computers, making it easy for participants/patients to engage with and low-cost to carry out.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>These materials are just examples. Any 20 easy-to-name small objects will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A tea light</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A toy digger</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A toy frog</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A clothing hook</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A spoon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A set of keys</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A button</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A lip balm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A toy snowman</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A bottle cap</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A die</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A lighter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A comb</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A wrist band</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A padlock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A butterfly pin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A ruler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A guitar plectrum</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A battery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A USB stick</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a real-world what-where-when memory test

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic memories are about events in their spatiotemporal context and are typically visuospatial, rather than verbal. Yet often, tests of episodic memory use verbal material to be recalled (word lists, stories). The Real-World What-Where-When memory test requires participants to hide a total of 16 different objects in 16 different locations over two temporal occasions, 2 h apart. Another two hours later, they are then asked to recall which objects (What) they had hidden in which locations (Where) and on which of the two occasions (When). In addition to counting the number of correctly recalled complete what-where-when combinations, this task can also be used to test real-world spatial memory and object memory. This task is sensitive to normal cognitive aging, and correlates well with performance on other episodic memory tasks, while at the same time providing more ecological validity and being cheap and easy to run.

Older people (65+) remember fewer complete What-Where-When combinations than do younger people (18-25; &#935;2(1) = 9.5; p = 0.002; Figure 3). Note that although as a group, older people perform worse than younger people, there are some older people who perform as well or better than some young people. This variation may be informative if it is predictive of other conditions.
One can also...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test at JoVE.com

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

The Real-World What-Where-When memory test is a novel episodic memory test, in which participants need to recall which objects have been hidden in which locations on which of two distinct occasions. It is easy to run and is sensitive to normal cognitive aging.

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic ...

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Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &#946;-Blocker

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive days. On day 1 - the fear acquisition phase, healthy participants are exposed to a series of picture presentations. One picture stimulus (CS1+) is repeatedly paired with an aversive electric stimulus (US), resulting in the acquisition of a fear association, whereas another picture stimulus (CS2-) is never followed by an US. On day 2 - the memory reactivation phase, the participants are re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus without the US (CS1-), which typically triggers a conditioned fear response. After the memory reactivation we administer an oral dose of 40 mg of propranolol HCl, a &#946;-adrenergic receptor antagonist that indirectly targets the protein synthesis required for reconsolidation by inhibiting the noradrenaline-stimulated CREB phosphorylation. On day 3 - the test phase, the participants are again exposed to the unreinforced conditioned stimuli (CS1- and CS2-) in order to measure the fear-reducing effect of the manipulation. This retention test is followed by an extinction procedure and the presentation of situational triggers to test for the return of fear. Potentiation of the eye blink startle reflex is measured as an index for conditioned fear responding. Declarative knowledge of the fear association is measured through online US expectancy ratings during each CS presentation. In contrast to extinction learning, disrupting reconsolidation targets the original fear memory thereby preventing the return of fear. Although the clinical applications are still in their infancy, disrupting reconsolidation of fear memory seems to be a promising new technique with the prospect to persistently dampen the expression of fear memory in patients suffering from anxiety disorders and other psychiatric disorders.

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &amp;#946;-Blocker

Disrupting reconsolidation is a promising approach to dampen the behavioral expression of fear memory in patients with anxiety disorders or posttraumatic stress disorder. In a series of human fear conditioning studies we showed that disrupting reconsolidation by the noradrenergic &#946;-blocker propranolol is very effective in erasing conditioned fear responding.

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive ...

A Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate Interference in Working Memory by Distractions and Interruptions

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that one attempts to ignore, or by interrupting information that demands attention as part of another (secondary) task goal. Both forms of external interference have been shown to detrimentally impact the ability to maintain information in working memory (WM). Emerging evidence suggests that these different types of external interference exert different effects on behavior and may be mediated by distinct neural mechanisms. Better characterizing the distinct neuro-behavioral impact of irrelevant distractions versus attended interruptions is essential for advancing an understanding of top-down attention, resolution of external interference, and how these abilities become degraded in healthy aging and in neuropsychiatric conditions. This manuscript describes a novel cognitive paradigm developed the Gazzaley lab that has now been modified into several distinct versions used to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference, by to-be-ignored distractors versus to-be-attended interruptors. Details are provided on variants of this paradigm for investigating interference in visual and auditory modalities, at multiple levels of stimulus complexity, and with experimental timing optimized for electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. In addition, data from younger and older adult participants obtained using this paradigm is reviewed and discussed in the context of its relationship with the broader literatures on external interference and age-related neuro-behavioral changes in resolving interference in working memory.

A novel cognitive paradigm is developed to elucidate behavioral and neural correlates of interference by to-be-ignored distractors versus interference by to-be-attended interruptors during a working memory task. In this manuscript, several variants of this paradigm are detailed, and data obtained with this paradigm in younger/older adult participants is reviewed.

Goal-directed behavior is often impaired by interference from the external environment, either in the form of distraction by irrelevant information that ...

The Double-H Maze: A Robust Behavioral Test for Learning and Memory in Rodents

Spatial cognition research in rodents typically employs the use of maze tasks, whose attributes vary from one maze to the next. These tasks vary by their behavioral flexibility and required memory duration, the number of goals and pathways, and also the overall task complexity. A confounding feature in many of these tasks is the lack of control over the strategy employed by the rodents to reach the goal, e.g., allocentric (declarative-like) or egocentric (procedural) based strategies. The double-H maze is a novel water-escape memory task that addresses this issue, by allowing the experimenter to direct the type of strategy learned during the training period. The double-H maze is a transparent device, which consists of a central alleyway with three arms protruding on both sides, along with an escape platform submerged at the extremity of one of these arms.
Rats can be trained using an allocentric strategy by alternating the start position in the maze in an unpredictable manner (see protocol 1; &#167;4.7), thus requiring them to learn the location of the platform based on the available allothetic cues. Alternatively, an egocentric learning strategy (protocol 2; &#167;4.8) can be employed by releasing the rats from the same position during each trial, until they learn the procedural pattern required to reach the goal. This task has been proven to allow for the formation of stable memory traces.
Memory can be probed following the training period in a misleading probe trial, in which the starting position for the rats alternates. Following an egocentric learning paradigm, rats typically resort to an allocentric-based strategy, but only when their initial view on the extra-maze cues differs markedly from their original position. This task is ideally suited to explore the effects of drugs/perturbations on allocentric/egocentric memory performance, as well as the interactions between these two memory systems.

The goal of this protocol is to investigate spatial cognition in rodents. The double-H water maze is a novel test, which is particularly useful to elucidate the different components of learning, consolidation and memory, as well as the interplay of memory systems.

Spatial cognition research in rodents typically employs the use of maze tasks, whose attributes vary from one maze to the next. These tasks vary by their ...

Morris Water Maze Test: Optimization for Mouse Strain and Testing Environment

The Morris water maze (MWM) is a commonly used task to assess hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory in transgenic mouse models of disease, including neurocognitive disorders such as Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. However, the background strain of the mouse model used can have a substantial effect on the observed behavioral phenotype, with some strains exhibiting superior learning ability relative to others. To ensure differences between transgene negative and transgene positive mice can be detected, identification of a training procedure sensitive to the background strain is essential. Failure to tailor the MWM protocol to the background strain of the mouse model may lead to under- or over- training, thereby masking group differences in probe trials. Here, a MWM protocol tailored for use with the F1 FVB/N x 129S6 background is described. This is a frequently used background strain to study the age-dependent effects of mutant P301L tau (rTg(TauP301L)4510 mice) on the memory deficits associated with Alzheimer&#8217;s disease. Also described is a strategy to re-optimize, as dictated by the particular testing environment utilized.

This manuscript describes a Morris water maze (MWM) protocol tailored for use with a commonly used mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. The MWM is widely used in transgenic mouse models. Implementation of a procedure sensitive to the background strain of the mouse model is essential for detecting group differences.

 The Morris water maze (MWM) is a commonly used task to assess hippocampal-dependent spatial learning and memory in transgenic mouse models of disease, ...

Using Fiberless, Wearable fNIRS to Monitor Brain Activity in Real-world Cognitive Tasks

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to monitor brain activity. Based on neurovascular coupling, fNIRS is able to measure the haemoglobin concentration changes secondary to neuronal activity. Compared to other neuroimaging techniques, fNIRS represents a good compromise in terms of spatial and temporal resolution. Moreover, it is portable, lightweight, less sensitive to motion artifacts and does not impose significant physical restraints. It is therefore appropriate to monitor a wide range of cognitive tasks (e.g., auditory, gait analysis, social interaction) and different age populations (e.g., new-borns, adults, elderly people). The recent development of fiberless fNIRS devices has opened the way to new applications in neuroscience research. This represents a unique opportunity to study functional activity during real-world tests, which can be more sensitive and accurate in assessing cognitive function and dysfunction than lab-based tests. This study explored the use of fiberless fNIRS to monitor brain activity during a real-world prospective memory task. This protocol is performed outside the lab and brain haemoglobin concentration changes are continuously measured over the prefrontal cortex while the subject walks around in order to accomplish several different tasks.

Monitoring brain activity outside the lab without physical constraints presents methodological challenges. A fiberless, wearable functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) system was used to measure brain activity during an ecological prospective memory task. It was demonstrated that this system could be used to monitor brain activity during non-lab based experiments.

Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to monitor brain activity. Based on neurovascular ...

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of four mountains within a computer-generated landscape is tested using a delayed match-to-sample paradigm. Allocentric spatial memory is assessed by altering the viewpoint, colors and textures between the initially presented and target images.
Allocentric spatial memory is a key function of the hippocampus, one of the earliest brain regions to be affected in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and impairment of hippocampal function predates the onset of dementia. It was hypothesized that performance on the 4MT would aid the diagnosis of predementia AD, which manifests clinically as Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI).
The 4MT was applied to patients with MCI, stratified further based on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarker status (10 MCI biomarker positive, 9 MCI biomarker negative), and with mild AD dementia, as well as healthy controls. Comparator tests included tests of episodic memory and attention widely accepted as sensitive measures of early AD. Behavioral data were correlated with quantitative MRI measures of the hippocampus, precuneus and posterior cingulate gyrus.
4MT scores were significantly different between the two MCI groups (p = 0.001), with a test score of &#8804;8/15 associated with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity for the classification of MCI with positive AD biomarkers, i.e., predementia AD. 4MT test scores correlated with hippocampal volume (r = 0.42) and cortical thickness of the precuneus (r = 0.55).
In conclusion, the 4MT is effective in identifying the early stages of AD. The short duration, easy application and scoring, and favorable psychometric properties of the 4MT fulfil the need for a simple but accurate diagnostic test for predementia AD.

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer&#039;s Disease

This article describes the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a hippocampus-dependent test of working allocentric spatial memory. The hippocampus is affected early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and this article outlines the 4MT methodology and results of patient testing, which demonstrates the value of the 4MT in the diagnosis of pre-dementia AD.

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &amp;#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Novel Object Recognition Test for the Investigation of Learning and Memory in Mice

The object recognition test (ORT) is a commonly used behavioral assay for the investigation of various aspects of learning and memory in mice. The ORT is fairly simple and can be completed over 3 days: habituation day, training day, and testing day. During training, the mouse is allowed to explore 2 identical objects. On test day, one of the training objects is replaced with a novel object. Because mice have an innate preference for novelty, if the mouse recognizes the familiar object, it will spend most of its time at the novel object. Due to this innate preference, there is no need for positive or negative reinforcement or long training schedules. Additionally, the ORT can also be modified for numerous applications. The retention interval can be shortened to examine short-term memory, or lengthened to probe long-term memory. Pharmacological intervention can be used at various times prior to training, after training, or prior to recall to investigate different phases of learning (i.e., acquisition, early or late consolidation, or recall). Overall, the ORT is a relatively low-stress, efficient test for memory in mice, and is appropriate for the detection of neuropsychological changes following pharmacological, biological, or genetic manipulations.

The object recognition test (ORT) is a simple and efficient assay for evaluating learning and memory in mice. The methodology is described below.

The object recognition test (ORT) is a commonly used behavioral assay for the investigation of various aspects of learning and memory in mice. The ORT is ...

Olfactory Context Dependent Memory: Direct Presentation of Odorants

Information is retrieved more effectively when the retrieval occurs in the same context as that in which the information was first encoded. This is termed context dependent memory (CDM). One category of cues that have been shown to effectively produce CDM effects are odors. However, it is unclear what the boundary conditions of these CDM effects are. In particular, given that olfaction has been called an implicit sense, it is possible that odors are only effective mnemonic cues when they are presented in the background. This assertion seems even more likely given that previous research has shown odors to be poor cues during paired associate memory tests, where odors are in the focus of attention as mnemonic cues for other information. In order to determine whether odors are only effective contextual mnemonic cues when presented outside the central focus of an observer, an olfactory CDM experiment was performed in which odorants were presented directly, rather than ambiently. Direct presentation was accomplished with the aid of an olfactometer. The olfactometer not only allows for direct presentation of odorants, but provides other methodological benefits, including the allowance of trial by trial manipulations of odorant presentations and, relatedly, time-specific releases of odorants. The presence of the same odor during both encoding and retrieval enhanced memory performance, regardless of whether the odor was presented ambiently or directly. This finding can serve as a basis for future olfactory CDM research which can utilize the benefits of direct presentation.

The use of an olfactometer for directly presenting odorants opens exciting opportunities for researchers of olfactory memory. The current paper discusses issues related to this methodology as related to a previously published experiment on olfactory context dependent memory.

Information is retrieved more effectively when the retrieval occurs in the same context as that in which the information was first encoded. This is termed ...

Methods for Presenting Real-world Objects Under Controlled Laboratory Conditions

Our knowledge of human object vision is based almost exclusively on studies in which the stimuli are presented in the form of computerized two-dimensional (2-D) images. In everyday life, however, humans interact predominantly with real-world solid objects, not images. Currently, we know very little about whether images of objects trigger similar behavioral or neural processes as do real-world exemplars. Here, we present methods for bringing the real-world into the laboratory. We detail methods for presenting rich, ecologically-valid real-world stimuli under tightly-controlled viewing conditions. We describe how to match closely the visual appearance of real objects and their images, as well as novel apparatus and protocols that can be used to present real objects and computerized images on successively interleaved trials. We use a decision-making paradigm as a case example in which we compare willingness-to-pay (WTP) for real snack foods versus 2-D images of the same items. We show that WTP increases by 6.6% for food items displayed as real objects versus high-resolution 2-D colored&#160;images of the same foods -suggesting that real foods are perceived as being more valuable than their images. Although presenting real object stimuli under controlled conditions presents several practical challenges for the experimenter, this approach will fundamentally expand our understanding of the cognitive and neural processes that underlie naturalistic vision.

We describe methods for presenting real-world objects and matched images of the same objects under tightly-controlled experimental conditions. The methods are described in the context of a decision-making task, but the same real-world approach can be extended to other cognitive domains such as perception, attention, and memory.

Our knowledge of human object vision is based almost exclusively on studies in which the stimuli are presented in the form of computerized two-dimensional ...