Name: a real-world what-where-when memory test
Uploaded: 2017-05-16T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test at JoVE.com

Thank you to all the participants that have helped develop this methodology over different iterations of the task. Thank you also to all the students who helped by running the different iterations over the years: Natasha Dubes, Emma Denning, Victoria Bellhouse, Stephen Holland, Melissa Anderson, Katie Shaw, Sarah Morgan, Karla Butterworth, Michael Craig, Lauren Wray, Olivia Sanderson, Daniel Lai, Rajameenakshi Boopathy and Chun Kit Ho. This research was funded by Newcastle University's contributions to student research projects.

This protocol was approved by Newcastle University&#39;s Faculty of Medical Sciences Ethics Committee (approval number 515_1).
1. Preparation for the study
<ol>
	<li>Before running the study, gather 20 small, easily identified/described objects, e.g., 
	A tea light 
	A toy digger 
	A toy frog 
	A clothing hook 
	A spoon 
	A set of keys 
	A button 
	A lip balm 
	A toy snowman 
	A bottle cap 
	A die 
	A lighter 
	A comb<...

<ol>
	<li>Tulving, E., Tulving, E., Donaldson, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Organization of memory. , 381-403 (1972).</li><li>Tulving, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic+memory:+From+mind+to+brain.">Episodic memory: From mind to brain.</a> Rev Neurol. 160, S9-S23 (2004).</li><li>Irish, M., Lawlor, B. A., Coen, R. F., O'Mara, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Everyday+episodic+memory+in+amnestic+mild+cognitive+impairment:+A+preliminary+investigation.">Everyday episodic memory in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary investigation.</a> BMC Neurosci. 12, (2011).</li><li>Pause, B. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perspectives+on+Episodic-like+and+Episodic+Memory.">Perspectives on Episodic-like and Episodic Memory.</a> Front Behav Neurosci. 7, (2013).</li><li>Eichenbaum, H., Sauvage, M., Fortin, N., Komorowski, R., Lipton, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+a+functional+organization+of+episodic+memory+in+the+medial+temporal+lobe.">Towards a functional organization of episodic memory in the medial temporal lobe.</a> Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 36, 1597-1608 (2012).</li><li>Dere, E., Pause, B. M., Pietrowsky, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emotion+and+episodic+memory+in+neuropsychiatric+disorders.">Emotion and episodic memory in neuropsychiatric disorders.</a> Behav Brain Res. 215, 162-171 (2010).</li><li>Clayton, N. S., Bussey, T. J., Dickinson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+animals+recall+the+past+and+plan+for+the+future?.">Can animals recall the past and plan for the future?.</a> Nat Rev Neurosci. 4, 685-691 (2003).</li><li>Tierney, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+the+Rey+Auditory+Verbal+Learning+Test+in+differentiating+normal+aging+from+Alzheimer's+and+Parkinson's+dementia.">Use of the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in differentiating normal aging from Alzheimer's and Parkinson's dementia.</a> Psychol Assess. 6, 129-134 (1994).</li><li>Hayne, H., Imuta, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic+memory+in+3-+and+4-year-old+children.">Episodic memory in 3- and 4-year-old children.</a> Dev Psychobiol. 53, 317-322 (2011).</li><li>Holland, S. M., Smulders, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Do+humans+use+episodic+memory+to+solve+a+What-Where-When+memory+task?.">Do humans use episodic memory to solve a What-Where-When memory task?.</a> Anim Cogn. 14, 95-102 (2011).</li><li>Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Do+different+tests+of+episodic+memory+produce+consistent+results+in+human+adults?.">Do different tests of episodic memory produce consistent results in human adults?.</a> Learn Mem. 20, 491-498 (2013).</li><li>Newcombe, N. S., Balcomb, F., Ferrara, K., Hansen, M., Koski, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two+rooms,+two+representations?+Episodic-like+memory+in+toddlers+and+preschoolers.">Two rooms, two representations? Episodic-like memory in toddlers and preschoolers.</a> Dev Sci. 17, 743-756 (2014).</li><li>Cheke, L. G., Clayton, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+six+blind+men+and+the+elephant:+Are+episodic+memory+tasks+tests+of+different+things+or+different+tests+of+the+same+thing?.">The six blind men and the elephant: Are episodic memory tasks tests of different things or different tests of the same thing?.</a> J Exp Child Psychol. 137, 164-171 (2015).</li><li>Cheke, L. G., Simons, J. S., Clayton, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Higher+BMI+is+Associated+with+Episodic+Memory+Deficits+in+Young+Adults.">Higher BMI is Associated with Episodic Memory Deficits in Young Adults.</a> Q J Exp Psychol. , 1-24 (2015).</li><li>Kwok, S. C., Macaluso, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immediate+memory+for+&amp;#34;when,+where+and+what&amp;#34;:+Short-delay+retrieval+using+dynamic+naturalistic+material.">Immediate memory for &amp;#34;when, where and what&amp;#34;: Short-delay retrieval using dynamic naturalistic material.</a> Hum Brain Map. 36, 2495-2513 (2015).</li><li>Mazurek, A., Bhoopathy, R., Read, J. C. A., Gallagher, P., Smulders, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+age+on+a+real-world+What-Where-When+memory+task.">Effects of age on a real-world What-Where-When memory task.</a> Front Aging Neurosci. 7, (2015).</li><li>Cheke, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What-where-when+memory+and+encoding+strategies+in+healthy+aging.">What-where-when memory and encoding strategies in healthy aging.</a> Learn Mem. 23, 121-126 (2016).</li><li>Zlomuzica, A., Preusser, F., Totzeck, C., Dere, E., Margraf, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+different+emotional+states+on+the+memory+for+what,+where+and+when+features+of+specific+events.">The impact of different emotional states on the memory for what, where and when features of specific events.</a> Behav Brain Res. 298 (Part B), 181-187 (2016).</li><li>Plancher, G., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., Piolino, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age+effect+on+components+of+episodic+memory+and+feature+binding:+A+virtual+reality+study.">Age effect on components of episodic memory and feature binding: A virtual reality study.</a> Neuropsychology. 24, 379-390 (2010).</li><li>Plancher, G., Tirard, A., Gyselinck, V., Nicolas, S., Piolino, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+virtual+reality+to+characterize+episodic+memory+profiles+in+amnestic+mild+cognitive+impairment+and+Alzheimer's+disease:+Influence+of+active+and+passive+encoding.">Using virtual reality to characterize episodic memory profiles in amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: Influence of active and passive encoding.</a> Neuropsychologia. 50, 592-602 (2012).</li><li>Laurent, X., Ensslin, A., Mar&#237;-Beffa, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+action+to+an+object+does+not+improve+its+episodic+encoding+but+removes+distraction.">An action to an object does not improve its episodic encoding but removes distraction.</a> J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 42, 494-507 (2016).</li><li>Craig, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+does+intentionality+of+encoding+affect+memory+for+episodic+information?.">How does intentionality of encoding affect memory for episodic information?.</a> Learn Mem. 23, 648-659 (2016).</li><li>Clayton, N. S., Dickinson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic-like+memory+during+cache+recovery+by+scrub+jays.">Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays.</a> Nature. 395, 272-274 (1998).</li><li>Skov-Rackette, S. I., Miller, N. Y., Shettleworth, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What-where-when+memory+in+pigeons.">What-where-when memory in pigeons.</a> J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 32, 345-358 (2006).</li><li>Roberts, W. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Episodic-Like+Memory+in+Rats:+Is+It+Based+on+When+or+How+Long+Ago?.">Episodic-Like Memory in Rats: Is It Based on When or How Long Ago?.</a> Science. 320, 113-115 (2008).</li><li>Feeney, M. C., Roberts, W. A., Sherry, D. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+for+what,+where,+and+when+in+the+black-capped+chickadee+(Poecile+atricapillus).">Memory for what, where, and when in the black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus).</a> Anim Cogn. 12, 767-777 (2009).</li><li>Hoffman, M. L., Beran, M. J., Washburn, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+for+&amp;#34;What&amp;#34+&amp;#34;Where&amp;#34;,+and+&amp;#34;When&amp;#34;+Information+in+Rhesus+Monkeys+(Macaca+mulatta).">Memory for &amp;#34;What&amp;#34 &amp;#34;Where&amp;#34;, and &amp;#34;When&amp;#34; Information in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta).</a> J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process. 35, 143-152 (2009).</li><li>Zinkivskay, A., Nazir, F., Smulders, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What-Where-When+memory+in+magpies+(Pica+pica).">What-Where-When memory in magpies (Pica pica).</a> Anim Cogn. 12, 119-125 (2009).</li><li>Binder, S., Dere, E., Zlomuzica, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+critical+appraisal+of+the+what-where-when+episodic-like+memory+test+in+rodents:+Achievements,+caveats+and+future+directions.">A critical appraisal of the what-where-when episodic-like memory test in rodents: Achievements, caveats and future directions.</a> Prog Neurobiol. 130, 71-85 (2015).</li><li>Kinugawa, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aging-related+episodic+memory+decline:+Are+emotions+the+key?.">Aging-related episodic memory decline: Are emotions the key?.</a> Front Behav Neurosci. 7, (2013).</li><li>Pause, B. M., Jungbluth, C., Adolph, D., Pietrowsky, R., Dere, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+and+measurement+of+episodic+memories+in+healthy+adults.">Induction and measurement of episodic memories in healthy adults.</a> J Neurosci Meth. 189, 88-96 (2010).</li><li>Kessels, R. P. C., Postma, A., De Haan, E. H. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Object+Relocation:+A+program+for+setting+up,+running,+and+analyzing+experiments+on+memory+for+object+locations.">Object Relocation: A program for setting up, running, and analyzing experiments on memory for object locations.</a> Behav Res Meth, Instr, Comp. 31, 423-428 (1999).</li></ol>

The data show that performance on other tasks which are supposed to measure episodic memory predicts performance on the Real-World What-Where-When memory task as well. However, these correlations are likely to represent a shared subset of cognitive abilities used by the different tasks. The Real-World What-Where-When memory task has the advantage over these other tasks in that it tests people&#39;s memory for two actual events which happened in a real spatio-temporal context. Unlike asking people about events from their ...

Episodic memory is memory for unique events from one&#39;s own past that are experienced as a reliving of the original event (mental time travel)1,2. It is also one of the first types of memory to be affected in the early stages of many forms of dementia3,4. The medial temporal lobe, and more specifically the hippocampus, is believed to be an important structure in the processing of episodic memories5, and therefore any conditions that affect hippocampal function, like aging and many mood disorders, are also believed to affect episodic memory function. As such, episodic memory function can be a useful biomarker for a range of neurological and psychiatric conditions6.
Methods for quantifying episodic memory, however, are still less than ideal. Real-world everyday episodic memories are integrative memories of unique events in their spatiotemporal context7, usually incidentally encoded4. The two most common methods used in both the clinic and in academic research are word list learning8 and recounting a story from one&#39;s own past3. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the word lists over the story approach is that the assessor knows exactly what the right answers are. This is difficult to assess with spontaneous stories from the participant/patient&#39;s past, since often no objective evidence is available and even accounts from family members may have incorrect details in them. The advantage of the stories is that they actually assess the typical content and structure of episodic memories: events in spatiotemporal context, with information about What happened, Where and When bound together7. Word lists do not require any context to be recalled at all, and are often rehearsed several times (e.g. the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task).
Recently, several attempts have been made to construct episodic memory tasks that combine the strengths of the two classical tests while minimizing the drawbacks9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22. The current protocol is the most recent version of a What-Where-When episodic memory test which has been developed at Newcastle University10,16,22. The concept is based on the work with non-human animals, started by Clayton and Dickinson23, and adapted for work with a range of other species24,25,26,27,28, some of which have confirmed the sensitivity of this paradigm to medial temporal lobe damage29. It is one of several attempts at incorporating a What-Where-When framework in episodic memory testing with adult humans18,20,30,31, but the only one to be performed in a real environment, without the use of computers, making it easy for participants/patients to engage with and low-cost to carry out.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>These materials are just examples. Any 20 easy-to-name small objects will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A tea light</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A toy digger</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A toy frog</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A clothing hook</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A spoon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A set of keys</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A button</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A lip balm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A toy snowman</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A bottle cap</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A die</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A lighter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A comb</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A wrist band</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A padlock</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A butterfly pin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A ruler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A guitar plectrum</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A battery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>- A USB stick</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a real-world what-where-when memory test

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic memories are about events in their spatiotemporal context and are typically visuospatial, rather than verbal. Yet often, tests of episodic memory use verbal material to be recalled (word lists, stories). The Real-World What-Where-When memory test requires participants to hide a total of 16 different objects in 16 different locations over two temporal occasions, 2 h apart. Another two hours later, they are then asked to recall which objects (What) they had hidden in which locations (Where) and on which of the two occasions (When). In addition to counting the number of correctly recalled complete what-where-when combinations, this task can also be used to test real-world spatial memory and object memory. This task is sensitive to normal cognitive aging, and correlates well with performance on other episodic memory tasks, while at the same time providing more ecological validity and being cheap and easy to run.

Older people (65+) remember fewer complete What-Where-When combinations than do younger people (18-25; &#935;2(1) = 9.5; p = 0.002; Figure 3). Note that although as a group, older people perform worse than younger people, there are some older people who perform as well or better than some young people. This variation may be informative if it is predictive of other conditions.
One can also...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test at JoVE.com

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

The Real-World What-Where-When memory test is a novel episodic memory test, in which participants need to recall which objects have been hidden in which locations on which of two distinct occasions. It is easy to run and is sensitive to normal cognitive aging.

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test

Episodic memory is a complex memory system which allows recall and mental re-experience of previous episodes from one&#39;s own life. Real-life episodic ...

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