Name: assessing therapeutic angiogenesis in a murine model of hindlimb ischemia
Uploaded: 2019-06-08T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Therapeutic Angiogenesis in a Murine Model of Hindlimb Ischemia at JoVE.com

We thank Jos&#233; Rino and T&#226;nia Carvalho, heads of the Bioimaging Facility and Histology and Comparative Pathology Laboratory of Instituto de Medicina Molecular Jo&#227;o Lobo Antunes, respectively. We also thank Vyacheslav Sushchyk from the Department of Anatomy of Nova Medical School/Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa.
Funding reference: project funded by UID/IC/0306/2016 Funda&#231;&#227;o para a Ci&#234;ncia e a Tecnologia. Paula de Oliveira is supported by a fellowship (SFRH/BD/80483/2011) from Funda&#231;&#227;o para a Ci&#234;ncia e Tecnologia.

All animal procedures are in accordance with Directive 2010/63/EU and have been approved by the Institutional Animal Welfare Body and licensed by DGAV, the Portuguese competent authority for animal protection (license number 023861/2013)
CAUTION: Several of the chemicals used in the protocols are toxic and harmful. Please use all appropriate safety practices and personal protective equipment (gloves, lab coat, full-length pants, and closed-toe shoes)
1. The murine mod...

<ol>
	<li>Becker, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chapter+I:+Definitions,+epidemiology,+clinical+presentation+and+prognosis.">Chapter I: Definitions, epidemiology, clinical presentation and prognosis.</a> European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 42 Suppl 2, S4-S12 (2011).</li><li>Fowkes, F. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peripheral+artery+disease:+epidemiology+and+global+perspectives.">Peripheral artery disease: epidemiology and global perspectives.</a> Nature Reviews Cardiology. 14 (3), 156-170 (2017).</li><li>Abu Dabrh, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+natural+history+of+untreated+severe+or+critical+limb+ischemia.">The natural history of untreated severe or critical limb ischemia.</a> Journal of Vascular Surgery. 62 (6), 1642-1651 (2015).</li><li>Lejay, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+murine+model+of+sustainable+and+durable+chronic+critical+limb+ischemia+fairly+mimicking+human+pathology.">A new murine model of sustainable and durable chronic critical limb ischemia fairly mimicking human pathology.</a> European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 49 (2), 205-212 (2015).</li><li>Sprengers, R. W., Lips, D. J., Moll, F. L., Verhaar, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progenitor+cell+therapy+in+patients+with+critical+limb+ischemia+without+surgical+options.">Progenitor cell therapy in patients with critical limb ischemia without surgical options.</a> Annals of Surgery. 247 (3), 411-420 (2008).</li><li>Lotfi, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+a+more+relevant+hind+limb+model+of+muscle+ischaemia.">Towards a more relevant hind limb model of muscle ischaemia.</a> Atherosclerosis. 227 (1), 1-8 (2013).</li><li>Masaki, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angiogenic+gene+therapy+for+experimental+critical+limb+ischemia:+acceleration+of+limb+loss+by+overexpression+of+vascular+endothelial+growth+factor+165+but+not+of+fibroblast+growth+factor-2.">Angiogenic gene therapy for experimental critical limb ischemia: acceleration of limb loss by overexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor 165 but not of fibroblast growth factor-2.</a> Circulation Research. 90 (9), 966-973 (2002).</li><li>Limbourg, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+postnatal+arteriogenesis+and+angiogenesis+in+a+mouse+model+of+hind-limb+ischemia.">Evaluation of postnatal arteriogenesis and angiogenesis in a mouse model of hind-limb ischemia.</a> Nature Protocols. 4 (12), 1737-1746 (2009).</li><li>Hellingman, A. 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R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Therapeutic+angiogenesis+induced+by+human+umbilical+cord+tissue-derived+mesenchymal+stromal+cells+in+a+murine+model+of+hindlimb+ischemia.">Therapeutic angiogenesis induced by human umbilical cord tissue-derived mesenchymal stromal cells in a murine model of hindlimb ischemia.</a> Stem Cell Research Therapy. 7 (1), 145 (2016).</li><li>Azaripour, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+survey+of+clearing+techniques+for+3D+imaging+of+tissues+with+special+reference+to+connective+tissue.">A survey of clearing techniques for 3D imaging of tissues with special reference to connective tissue.</a> Progress in Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 51 (2), 9-23 (2016).</li></ol>

Murine models of CLI have mostly consisted in ligation of the femoral artery just distal to the origin of the profunda femoris 4,5,6,7,8,9. This has shown to leave most of the collateral circulation intact, which restores blood flow to the limb within 7 days 9. Removal of the collateral bed can be achi...

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) affects predominantly the lower limbs. PAD is caused by atherosclerosis, an artery obstruction that can cause severe restriction to the blood flow in the lower limbs1. Intermittent claudication is the first manifestation of PAD and refers to muscle pain when walking. CLI is the most severe stage of PAD, being diagnosed in patients that show ischemic rest pain, ulcers or gangrene2. Patients with CLI have a high risk of amputation, especially if untreated3. Lower limb revascularization (either by open surgery or an endovascular procedure) is currently the only way to achieve limb salvage. However, around 30% of CLI patients are not suited for these procedures, for reasons that include the location of the lesions, the pattern of arterial occlusion and extensive comorbidity4,5. Therefore, new therapies are needed for these otherwise untreatable patients, with the promotion of angiogenesis being the strategy under more intense investigation.
Before testing in humans, the effectiveness&#160;and safety of new therapies&#160;in vivo&#160;must be considered in animal models. Several models have been developed for the study of CLI, mostly by inducing hindlimb ischemia (HLI) in mice6,7,8,9,10.&#160;However, these models differ in several aspects including the nature of the&#160;arteries that are ligated and/or excised&#160;and whether&#160;the veins and nerves surrounding are dissected as well6,7,8,9,10. Taken together, these aspects will affect the severity of the ischemia-reperfusion injury in each animal,&#160;making the results difficult to be compared. Therefore, it is critical to develop an effective protocol in which the procedure to induce ischemia and the evaluation of different targets should be standardized to assess whether a given angiogenic therapy will be effective. An experimental protocol designed to cover all these aspects would provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which angiogenic therapies exert their effects and a measure of their efficacy at each of their outcomes. Two distinct works recently published by our team are a good example11,12, in which different approaches to induce therapeutic angiogenesis were assessed using the same protocol that will be described&#160;with more detail&#160;in this protocol.
The overall goal of this protocol is to describe a reproducible experimental model that can mimic the effects of CLI and lay the experimental foundation for a comprehensive assessment of the functional, histologic and molecular effects of putative angiogenic agents.

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assessing therapeutic angiogenesis in a murine model of hindlimb ischemia

Critical limb ischemia (CLI) is a serious condition that entails a high risk of lower limb amputation. Despite revascularization being the gold-standard therapy, a considerable number of CLI patients are not suited for either surgical or endovascular revascularization. Angiogenic therapies are emerging as an option for these patients but are currently still under investigation. Before application in humans, those therapies must be tested in animal models and its mechanisms must be clearly understood. An animal model of hindlimb ischemia (HLI) has been developed by the ligation and excision of the distal external iliac and femoral arteries and veins in mice. A comprehensive panel of tests was assembled to assess the effects of ischemia and putative angiogenic therapies at functional, histologic and molecular levels. Laser Doppler was used for the flow measurement and functional assessment of perfusion. Tissue response was evaluated by the analysis of capillary density after staining with the anti-CD31 antibody on histological sections of gastrocnemius muscle and by measurement of collateral vessel density after diaphonization. Expression of angiogenic genes was quantified by RT-PCR targeting selected angiogenic factors exclusively in endothelial cells (ECs) after laser capture microdissection from mice gastrocnemius muscles. These methods were sensitive in identifying differences between ischemic and non-ischemic limbs and between treated and non-treated limbs. This protocol provides a reproducible model of CLI and a framework for testing angiogenic therapies.

Using the described protocol, umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells and low-dose ionizing radiation (LDIR) were tested as putative angiogenic therapies 11,12. Laser Doppler perfusion readings were obtained before ischemia induction and at pre-specified timepoints ranging from immediately after ischemia induction to 45 days post-ischemia. Tissue perfusion readings by laser Doppler were recorded as color-coded images, with no perfusion displayed as dark blue and th...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Therapeutic Angiogenesis in a Murine Model of Hindlimb Ischemia at JoVE.com

Assessing Therapeutic Angiogenesis in a Murine Model of Hindlimb Ischemia

Here, a critical hindlimb ischemia experimental model is presented followed by a battery of functional, histologic and molecular tests&#160;to assess the effectiveness of angiogenic therapies.&#8203;

Critical limb ischemia (CLI) is a serious condition that entails a high risk of lower limb amputation. Despite revascularization being the gold-standard ...

The overall goal of this experiment, our hindlimb ischemia model is to light the experiment a foundation for a comprehensive assessment of the functional, histologic and molecular effects of putative angiogenic agents. This protocol fields a standard for the testing of possible angiogenic therapies in a small animal model with the potential for future applications in the clinical context. As revascularization is not suitable in twenty to thirty percent of critical ischemia patients Therapeutic angiogenesis has emerged as a novel strategy for improving blood profusion at the ischemic site.This experimental protocol could provide a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which angiogenic therapies exert their effects in the measure of their efficacy at each of their outcomes. After confirming a lack of response to toe pinch in a 22 week old C57 black six female mouse, shave the hair from the right hindlimb and secure the animal in the dorsal to cubitus position on a heated pad. Place the animal under a dissecting microscope.And use a number eleven surgical scalpel blade to make a one centimeter skin incision over the thigh of the right hindlimb. Blunt dissect the subcutaneous fat to expose the neurovascular bundle. And use pointed forceps, spring scissors, and an ophthalmic needle holder to open the membraneous ileofemoral sheath to expose the distal external iliac and femoral vessels.After dissecting and separating the artery and vein from the nerve, use seven O nonabsorbable polypropylene sutures to ligate the distal femoral artery and vein and distal external iliac artery and vein. The identification of the distal external iliac artery and the ligation and excision of the distal external iliac and femoral artery and veins are critical for the success of the procedure. Use the spring scissors to transect the segment of the iliofemoral artery and veins between the distal and proximal knots.And close the incision with an absorbable suture. Then, inter-peritoneally deliver antisedative solution into the animal and return the mouse to its home cage with monitoring until full recovery. To harvest the gastrocnemius muscles, remove the skin from both hindlimbs.And use the cotton swab to separate the skin from the muscles. Holding the achilles tendon, use the spring scissors to separate the muscle from the tibia and fibula up to the knee joint. And separate the biceps femoris from the gastrocnemius muscle.Use the spring scissors to cut the insertions of the gastrocnemius muscle at the knee joint level. And use 10%trigasanth to position the harvested muscles in a transverse orientation on a small cork disk. Then, snap freeze the specimens in liquid nitrogen cooled isopentane for minus 80 degrees Celsius storage.For capillary microdissection laser capture, after obtaining 12 micrometer sections of the muscle specimens, fix the tissues to the slides in 50 milliliters of cooled pure acetone for five minutes at minus twenty degrees Celsius. After air drying and circle each specimen with a hydrophobic pen. And rehydrate the samples with two molar sodium chloride in PBS at four degrees Celsius.At the end of the re-hydration, label the samples with the appropriate primary antibody of interest at four degrees Celsius overnight. Followed by two three minute washes in fresh two molar sodium chloride in PBS per wash. After the second wash, label the sections with an appropriate secondary antibody for thirty minutes at four degrees celsius followed by two washes in sodium chloride in PBS as demonstrated.Next, label the samples with avidin conjugated peroxidase complex for thirty minutes at four degrees celsius. Followed by a wash and five minutes of labeling with DAB peroxidase substrate. At the end of the incubation, dehydrate the tissues in sequential ice cold 90%ethanol and 100%ethanol emersions.Then, use a later microdissection system, equipped with a pulse to solid state 355 nanometer laser to dissect 10, 000 capillaries per mouse and catapult the dissect capillaries into a microfuge tube adhesive cap. As illustrated, a complete loss of hindlimb perfusion is observed immediately after hindlimb ischemia induction. Quantitative evaluation of blood flow, expressed as a ratio of ISC to NISC limb, demonstrated significantly enhanced limb blood perfusion in mice exposed to the pro-angiogenic stimulus at days 15 and 45 post-HLI.The quantification of CD31 positive capillaries in histological sections of gastrocnemius muscle tissue sections shows that the capillary density is greater in the ischemic versus the non-ischemic limb. As expected. But this effect is further amplified after treatment with the pro-angiogenic agent.The collateral vessel density also consistently increases in the ischemic limb and this increase is significantly higher after exposure with the pro-angiogenic stimulus. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis of pro-angiogenic gene expression in CD31 positive endothelial cells demonstrates a clear variation in gene expression between mice exposed or not to the pro-angiogenic agent. It is important to use an ophthalmic needle older to open the membraneous iliofemoral sheath to avoid tearing of the artery and vein during the vessel dissection.The vessel responds to hindlimb ischemia in the readily evaluated by laser doppler based perfusion measurements and the histological quantification of the capillary vessel density allows us to evaluate the angiogenesis.

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Medicine

Assessing Teratogenic Changes in a Zebrafish Model of Fetal Alcohol Exposure

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a severe manifestation of embryonic exposure to ethanol. It presents with characteristic defects to the face and organs, including mental retardation due to disordered and damaged brain development. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is a term used to cover a continuum of birth defects that occur due to maternal alcohol consumption, and occurs in approximately 4% of children born in the United States. With 50% of child-bearing age women reporting consumption of alcohol, and half of all pregnancies being unplanned, unintentional exposure is a continuing issue2. In order to best understand the damage produced by ethanol, plus produce a model with which to test potential interventions, we developed a model of developmental ethanol exposure using the zebrafish embryo. Zebrafish are ideal for this kind of teratogen study3-8. Each pair lays hundreds of eggs, which can then be collected without harming the adult fish. The zebrafish embryo is transparent and can be readily imaged with any number of stains. Analysis of these embryos after exposure to ethanol at different doses and times of duration and application shows that the gross developmental defects produced by ethanol are consistent with the human birth defect. Described here are the basic techniques used to study and manipulate the zebrafish FAS model.

In order to understand the molecular mechanisms of the ethanol-induced developmental damage, we have developed a zebrafish model of ethanol exposure and are exploring the physical, cellular, and genetic alterations that occur after ethanol exposure1. We then seek to find potential interventions and rapidly test them in this animal model.

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a severe manifestation of embryonic exposure to ethanol. It presents with characteristic defects to the face and organs, ...

A Murine Closed-chest Model of Myocardial Ischemia and Reperfusion

Surgical trauma by thoracotomy in open-chest models of coronary ligation induces an immune response which modifies different mechanisms involved in ischemia and reperfusion. Immune response includes cytokine expression and release or secretion of endogenous ligands of innate immune receptors. Activation of innate immunity can potentially modulate infarct size. We have modified an existing murine closed-chest model using hanging weights which could be useful for studying myocardial pre- and postconditioning and the role of innate immunity in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion. This model allows animals to recover from surgical trauma before onset of myocardial ischemia.
Volatile anesthetics have been intensely studied and their preconditioning effect for the ischemic heart is well known. However, this protective effect precludes its use in open chest models of coronary artery ligation. Thus, another advantage could be the use of the well controllable volatile anesthetics for instrumentation in a chronic closed-chest model, since their preconditioning effect lasts up to 72 hours. Chronic heart diseases with intermittent ischemia and multiple hit models are other possible applications of this model.
For the chronic closed-chest model, intubated and ventilated mice undergo a lateral blunt thoracotomy via the 4th intercostal space. Following identification of the left anterior descending a ligature is passed underneath the vessel and both suture ends are threaded through an occluder. Then, both suture ends are passed through the chest wall, knotted to form a loop and left in the subcutaneous tissue. After chest closure and recovery for 5 days, mice are anesthetized again, chest skin is reopened and hanging weights are hooked up to the loop under ECG control.
At the end of the ischemia/reperfusion protocol, hearts can be stained with TTC for infarct size assessment or undergo perfusion fixation to allow morphometric studies in addition to histology and immunohistochemistry.

Surgical trauma induces an inflammatory response. Cytokines and endogenous ligands are known to modulate myocardial infarct size following ischemia and reperfusion. We present a modified closed-chest model of murine ischemia and reperfusion using hanging weights to minimize effects of thoracotomy.

Surgical trauma by thoracotomy in open-chest models of coronary ligation induces an immune response which modifies different mechanisms involved in ...

Retinal Detachment Model in Rodents by Subretinal Injection of Sodium Hyaluronate

Subretinal injection of sodium hyaluronate is a widely accepted method of inducing retinal detachment (RD). However, the height and duration of RD or the occurrence of subretinal hemorrhage can affect photoreceptor cell death in the detached retina. Hence, it is advantageous to create reproducible RDs without subretinal hemorrhage for evaluating photoreceptor cell death. We modified a previously reported method to create bullous and persistent RDs in a reproducible location with rare occurrence of subretinal hemorrhage. The critical step of this modified method is the creation of a self-sealing scleral incision, which can prevent leakage of sodium hyaluronate after injection into the subretinal space. To make the self-sealing scleral incision, a scleral tunnel is created, followed by scleral penetration into the choroid with a 30 G needle. Although choroidal hemorrhage may occur during this step, astriction with a surgical spear reduces the rate of choroidal hemorrhage. This method allows a more reproducible and reliable model of photoreceptor death in diseases that involve RD such as rhegmatogenous RD, retinopathy of prematurity, diabetic retinopathy, central serous chorioretinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

Creating experimental retinal detachments with a reproducible and sustained height of detachment, and without subretinal hemorrhage, is important for studying the pathophysiology of photoreceptor cell loss in retinal disease and evaluating potential therapeutic interventions. Here, we report such a method in detail.

Subretinal injection of sodium hyaluronate is a widely accepted method of inducing retinal detachment (RD). However, the height and duration of RD or the ...

Reproducable Paraplegia by Thoracic Aortic Occlusion in a Murine Model of Spinal Cord Ischemia-reperfusion

Background 
Lower extremity paralysis continues to complicate aortic interventions. The lack of understanding of the underlying pathology has hindered advancements to decrease the occurrence this injury.&#160;The current model demonstrates reproducible lower&#160;extremity paralysis following thoracic aortic occlusion.
Methods 
Adult male C57BL6 mice were anesthetized with isoflurane. Through a cervicosternal incision the aorta was exposed. The descending thoracic aorta and left subclavian arteries were identified without entrance into pleural space. Skeletonization of these arteries was followed by immediate closure (Sham) or occlusion for 4 min (moderate ischemia) or 8 min (prolonged ischemia). The sternotomy and skin were closed and the mouse was transferred to warming bed for recovery.&#160; Following recovery, functional analysis was obtained at 12 hr intervals until 48 hr.
Results 
Mice that underwent sham surgery showed no observable hind&#160;limb deficit. Mice subjected to moderate ischemia for 4 min had minimal functional deficit at 12 hr followed by progression to complete paralysis at 48 hr. Mice subjected to prolonged ischemia had an immediate paralysis with no observable hind-limb movement at any point in the postoperative period. There was no observed intraoperative or post&#160;operative mortality.
Conclusion 
Reproducible lower extremity paralysis whether immediate or delayed can be achieved in a murine model. Additionally, by using a median sternotomy and careful dissection, high survival rates, and reproducibility can be achieved.

The lack of mechanistic understanding of spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury has hindered further adjuncts to prevent paraplegia following high risk aortic operations. Thus, the development of animal models is imperative. This manuscript demonstrates reproducible lower extremity paralysis following thoracic aortic occlusion in a murine model.

Background
Lower extremity paralysis continues to complicate aortic interventions. The lack of understanding of the underlying pathology has hindered ...

A Murine Model of Myocardial Ischemia-reperfusion Injury through Ligation of the Left Anterior Descending Artery

Acute or chronic myocardial infarction (MI) are cardiovascular events resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Establishing the pathological mechanisms at work during MI and developing effective therapeutic approaches requires methodology to reproducibly simulate the clinical incidence and reflect the pathophysiological changes associated with MI. Here, we describe a surgical method to induce MI in mouse models that can be used for short-term ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury as well as permanent ligation. The major advantage of this method is to facilitate location of the left anterior descending artery (LAD) to allow for accurate ligation of this artery to induce ischemia in the left ventricle of the mouse heart. Accurate positioning of the ligature on the LAD increases reproducibility of infarct size and thus produces more reliable results. Greater precision in placement of the ligature will improve the standard surgical approaches to simulate MI in mice, thus reducing the number of experimental animals necessary for statistically relevant studies and improving our understanding of the mechanisms producing cardiac dysfunction following MI. This mouse model of MI is also useful for the preclinical testing of treatments targeting myocardial damage following MI.

We introduce a surgical method to induce experimental ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury to simulate myocardial infarction (MI) in mouse models that allows for more clarity in positioning of the ligation on the left anterior descending artery (LAD) to increase the reproducibility of MI experiments in mice.

Acute or chronic myocardial infarction (MI) are cardiovascular events resulting in high morbidity and mortality. Establishing the pathological mechanisms ...

Murine Model of Intestinal Ischemia-reperfusion Injury

Intestinal ischemia is a life-threatening condition associated with a broad range of clinical conditions including atherosclerosis, thrombosis, hypotension, necrotizing enterocolitis, bowel transplantation, trauma and chronic inflammation. Intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury is a consequence of acute mesenteric ischemia, caused by inadequate blood flow through the mesenteric vessels, resulting in intestinal damage. Reperfusion following ischemia can further exacerbate damage of the intestine. The mechanisms of IR injury are complex and poorly understood. Therefore, experimental small animal models are critical for understanding the pathophysiology of IR injury and the development of novel therapies.
Here we describe a mouse model of acute intestinal IR injury that provides reproducible injury of the small intestine without mortality. This is achieved by inducing ischemia in the region of the distal ileum by temporally occluding the peripheral and terminal collateral branches of the superior mesenteric artery for 60 min using microvascular clips. Reperfusion for 1 hr, or 2 hr after injury results in reproducible injury of the intestine examined by histological analysis. Proper position of the microvascular clips is critical for the procedure. Therefore the video clip provides a detailed visual step-by-step description of this technique. This model of intestinal IR injury can be utilized to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of injury and regeneration.

Here we describe the detailed procedure of intestinal ischemia-reperfusion in mice which results in reproducible injury without mortality to encourage the standardization of this technique across the field. This model of intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury can be utilized to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of injury and regeneration.

Intestinal ischemia is a life-threatening condition associated with a broad range of clinical conditions including atherosclerosis, thrombosis, ...

Methods for Acute and Subacute Murine Hindlimb Ischemia

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in developed countries, and animal models that reliably reproduce the human disease are necessary to develop new therapies for this disease. The mouse hindlimb ischemia model has been widely used for this purpose, but the standard practice of inducing acute limb ischemia by ligation of the femoral artery can result in substantial tissue necrosis, compromising investigators&#39; ability to study the vascular and skeletal muscle tissue responses to ischemia. An alternative approach to femoral artery ligation is the induction of gradual femoral artery occlusion through the use of ameroid constrictors. When placed around the femoral artery in the same or different locations as the sites of femoral artery ligation, these devices occlude the artery over 1 - 3 days, resulting in more gradual, subacute ischemia. This results in less substantial skeletal muscle tissue necrosis, which may more closely mimic the responses seen in human PAD. Because genetic background influences outcomes in both the acute and subacute ischemia models, consideration of the mouse strain being studied is important in choosing the best model. This paper describes the proper procedure and anatomical placement of ligatures or ameroid constrictors on the mouse femoral artery to induce subacute or acute hindlimb ischemia in the mouse.

Surgical induction of hindlimb ischemia in the mouse is useful to examine angiogenesis, however this is compromised in certain inbred mouse strains that display marked ischemia-induced tissue necrosis. Methods are described to induce subacute limb ischemia using ameroid constrictors to circumvent this problem through the induction of gradual arterial occlusion.

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) is a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in developed countries, and animal models that reliably ...

A Chronic Cardiac Ischemia Model in Swine Using an Ameroid Constrictor

Cardiovascular disease remains the number one cause of mortality in the United States. There are numerous approaches to treating these diseases, but regardless of the approach, an in vivo model is needed to test each treatment. The pig is one of the most used large animal models for cardiovascular disease. Its heart is very similar in anatomy and function to that of a human. The ameroid placement technique creates an ischemic area of the heart, which has many useful applications in studying myocardial infarction. This model has been used for surgical research, pharmaceutical studies, imaging techniques, and cell therapies.
There are several ways of inducing an ischemic area in the heart. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, but the placement of an ameroid constrictor remains the most widely used technique. The main advantages to using the ameroid are its prevalence in existing research, its availability in various sizes to accommodate the anatomy and size of the vessel to be constricted, the surgery is a relatively simple procedure, and the post-operative monitoring is minimal, since there are no external devices to maintain. This paper provides a detailed overview of the proper technique for the placement of the ameroid constrictor.

The purpose of this protocol is to demonstrate the placement of a delayed constricting device (an ameroid constrictor) around a coronary artery in a swine model. This device creates an ischemic area of the heart that is useful for studying new diagnostic imaging techniques and new methods of treatment.

Cardiovascular disease remains the number one cause of mortality in the United States. There are numerous approaches to treating these diseases, but ...

Intravital Microscopy of Monocyte Homing and Tumor-Related Angiogenesis in a Murine Model of Peripheral Arterial Disease

The therapeutic goal for peripheral arterial disease and ischemic heart disease is to increase blood flow to ischemic areas caused by hemodynamic stenosis. Vascular surgery is a viable option in selected cases, but for patients without indications for surgery such as progression to rest pain, critical limb ischemia, or major disruptions to life or work, there are few possibilities for mitigating their disease. Cell therapy via monocyte-enhanced perfusion through the stimulation of collateral formation is one of a few non-invasive options.
Our group examines arteriogenesis after monocyte transplantation into mice using the hindlimb ischemia model. Previously, we have demonstrated improvement in hindlimb perfusion using tetanus-stimulated syngeneic monocyte transplantation. In addition to the effects on the collateral formation, tumor growth could be affected by this therapy as well. To investigate these effects, we use a basement membrane-like matrix mouse model by injecting the extracellular matrix of the Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm sarcoma into the flank of the mouse, after occlusion of the femoral artery.
After the artificial tumor studies, we use intravital microscopy to study in vivo tumor-angiogenesis and monocyte homing within collateral arteries. Previous studies have described the histological examination of animal models, which presupposes subsequent analysis to post-mortem artifacts. Our approach visualizes monocyte homing to areas of collateralization in real time sequences, is easy to perform, and investigates the process of arteriogenesis and tumor angiogenesis in vivo.

Monocytes are important mediators of arteriogenesis in the context of peripheral arterial disease. Using a basement membrane-like matrix and intravital microscopy, this protocol investigates monocyte homing and tumor-related angiogenesis after monocyte injection in the femoral artery ligation murine model.

The therapeutic goal for peripheral arterial disease and ischemic heart disease is to increase blood flow to ischemic areas caused by hemodynamic ...

In Vitro Model of Coronary Angiogenesis

Here, we describe an in vitro culture assay to study coronary angiogenesis. Coronary vessels feed the heart muscle and are of clinical importance. Defects in these vessels represent severe health risks such as in atherosclerosis, which can lead to myocardial infarctions and heart failures in patients. Consequently, coronary artery disease is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Despite its clinical importance, relatively little progress has been made on how to regenerate damaged coronary arteries. Nevertheless, recent progress has been made in understanding the cellular origin and differentiation pathways of coronary vessel development. The advent of tools and technologies that allow researchers to fluorescently label progenitor cells, follow their fate, and visualize progenies in vivo have been instrumental in understanding coronary vessel development. In vivo studies are valuable, but have limitations in terms of speed, accessibility, and flexibility in experimental design. Alternatively, accurate in vitro models of coronary angiogenesis can circumvent these limitations and allow researchers to interrogate important biological questions with speed and flexibility. The lack of appropriate in vitro model systems may have hindered the progress in understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of coronary vessel growth. Here, we describe an in vitro culture system to grow coronary vessels from the sinus venosus (SV) and endocardium (Endo), the two progenitor tissues from which many of the coronary vessels arise. We also confirmed that the cultures accurately recapitulate some of the known in vivo mechanisms. For instance, we show that the angiogenic sprouts in culture from SV downregulate COUP-TFII expression similar to what is observed in vivo. In addition, we show that VEGF-A, a well-known angiogenic factor in vivo, robustly stimulates angiogenesis from both the SV and Endo cultures. Collectively, we have devised an accurate in vitro culture model to study coronary angiogenesis.

In vitro models of coronary angiogenesis can be utilized for the discovery of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of coronary angiogenesis. In vitro explant cultures of sinus venosus and endocardium tissues show robust growth in response to VEGF-A and display a similar pattern of COUP-TFII expression as in vivo.

Here, we describe an in vitro culture assay to study coronary angiogenesis. Coronary vessels feed the heart muscle and are of clinical importance. Defects ...