Name: measuring rates of herbicide metabolism in dicot weeds with an excised leaf assay
Uploaded: 2015-09-07T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Rates of Herbicide Metabolism in Dicot Weeds with an Excised Leaf Assay at JoVE.com

We thank Wendy Zhang, Austin Tom, Jacquie Janney, Erin Lemley, and Brittany Janney for assistance with plant growth and extractions, Dr. Anatoli Lygin for assistance with chromatographic analyses, and Syngenta Crop Protection for funding.

1. Plant Material, Growth Conditions, and Vegetative Cloning
Note: Three waterhemp populations were investigated in this research: MCR (from McLean County, IL), ACR (from Adams County, IL), and WCS (from Wayne County, IL) ( Table 1).
<ol>
	<li>Collect and suspend waterhemp seeds in 0.1 g L-1 agar:water solution at 4 &#176;C for at least 30 days to enhance germination. Note: Some waterhemp populations are dormant, but this step helps to overcome dormancy and make s...

<ol>
	<li>Yu, Q., Powles, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolism-based+herbicide+resistance+and+cross-resistance+in+crop+weeds:+A+threat+to+herbicide+sustainability+and+global+crop+production.">Metabolism-based herbicide resistance and cross-resistance in crop weeds: A threat to herbicide sustainability and global crop production.</a> Plant Physiology. 166, 1106-1118 (2014).</li><li>Powles, S. B., Yu, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+in+action:+plants+resistant+to+herbicides.">Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides.</a> Annual Reviews in Plant Biology. 61, 317-347 (2010).</li><li>Heap, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global+perspective+of+herbicide-resistant+weeds.">Global perspective of herbicide-resistant weeds.</a> Pest Management Science. 70 (9), 1306-1315 (2014).</li><li>D&#233;lye, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-target-site-based+resistance+should+be+the+centre+of+attention+for+herbicide+resistance+research:+Alopecurus+myosuroides+as+an+illustration.">Non-target-site-based resistance should be the centre of attention for herbicide resistance research: Alopecurus myosuroides as an illustration.</a> Weed Research. 51 (5), 433-437 (2011).</li><li>Kreuz, K., Tommasini, R., Martinoia, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Old+enzymes+for+a+new+job.+Herbicide+detoxification+in+plants.">Old enzymes for a new job. Herbicide detoxification in plants.</a> Plant Physiology. 111, 349-353 (1996).</li><li>Riechers, D. E., Kreuz, K., Zhang, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detoxification+without+intoxication:+herbicide+safeners+activate+plant+defense+gene+expression.">Detoxification without intoxication: herbicide safeners activate plant defense gene expression.</a> Plant Physiology. 153, 3-13 (2010).</li><li>Siminszky, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+cytochrome+P450-mediated+herbicide+metabolism.">Plant cytochrome P450-mediated herbicide metabolism.</a> Phytochemistry Reviews. 5 (2-3), 445-458 (2006).</li><li>Fonn&#233;-Pfister, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydroxylation+of+primisulfuron+by+an+inducible+cytochrome+P450-dependent+monooxygenase+system+from+maize.">Hydroxylation of primisulfuron by an inducible cytochrome P450-dependent monooxygenase system from maize.</a> Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 37 (2), 165-173 (1990).</li><li>Steckel, L. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dioecious+Amaranthus+spp.:+here+to+stay.">The dioecious Amaranthus spp.: here to stay.</a> Weed Technology. 21 (2), 567-570 (2007).</li><li>Horak, M. J., Loughin, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+analysis+of+four+Amaranthus+species.">Growth analysis of four Amaranthus species.</a> Weed Science. 48 (3), 347-355 (2000).</li><li>Hausman, N. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resistance+to+HPPD-inhibiting+herbicides+in+a+population+of+waterhemp+(Amaranthus+tuberculatus)+from+Illinois,+United+States.">Resistance to HPPD-inhibiting herbicides in a population of waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) from Illinois, United States.</a> Pest Management Science. 67 (3), 258-261 (2011).</li><li>Ma, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+detoxi&#64257;cation+mechanisms+confer+resistance+to+mesotrione+and+atrazine+in+a+population+of+waterhemp.">Distinct detoxi&#64257;cation mechanisms confer resistance to mesotrione and atrazine in a population of waterhemp.</a> Plant Physiology. 163, 363-377 (2013).</li><li>Guo, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-target-site+resistance+to+ALS+inhibitors+in+waterhemp+(Amaranthus+tuberculatus).">Non-target-site resistance to ALS inhibitors in waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus).</a> Weed Science. in press, (2015).</li><li>Patzoldt, W. L., Tranel, P. J., Hager, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+waterhemp+(Amaranthus+tuberculatus)+biotype+with+multiple+resistance+across+three+herbicide+sites+of+action.">A waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) biotype with multiple resistance across three herbicide sites of action.</a> Weed Science. 53 (1), 30-36 (2005).</li><li>Kreuz, K., Fonn&#233;-Pfister, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Herbicide-insecticide+interaction+in+maize:+malathion+inhibits+cytochrome+P450-dependent+primisulfuron+metabolism.">Herbicide-insecticide interaction in maize: malathion inhibits cytochrome P450-dependent primisulfuron metabolism.</a> Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 43 (3), 232-240 (1992).</li><li>Correia, M. A., Ortiz de Montellano, P. R., Ortiz de Montellano, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Cytochrome P450: Structure, Mechanism, and Biochemistry. , 247-322 (2005).</li><li>Hawkes, T. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mesotrione:+mechanism+of+herbicidal+activity+and+selectivity+in+corn.">Mesotrione: mechanism of herbicidal activity and selectivity in corn.</a> Proceedings of the Brighton Crop Protection Conference &#8211; Weeds. 2, 563-568 (2001).</li><li>Patzoldt, W. L., Tranel, P. J., Hager, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variable+herbicide+responses+among+Illinois+waterhemp+(Amaranthus+rudis+and+A.+tuberculatus)+populations.">Variable herbicide responses among Illinois waterhemp (Amaranthus rudis and A. tuberculatus) populations.</a> Crop Protection. 21 (9), 707-712 (2002).</li><li>Jalaludin, A., Yu, Q., Powles, S. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiple+resistance+across+glufosinate,+glyphosate,+paraquat+and+ACCase-inhibiting+herbicides+in+an+Eleusine+indica+population.">Multiple resistance across glufosinate, glyphosate, paraquat and ACCase-inhibiting herbicides in an Eleusine indica population.</a> Weed Research. 55 (1), 82-89 (2015).</li><li>Iwakami, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytochrome+P450+CYP81A12+and+CYP81A21+are+associated+with+resistance+to+two+acetolactate+synthase+inhibitors+in+Echinochloa+phyllopogon.">Cytochrome P450 CYP81A12 and CYP81A21 are associated with resistance to two acetolactate synthase inhibitors in Echinochloa phyllopogon.</a> Plant Physiology. 165, 618-629 (2014).</li></ol>

The excised-leaf method described herein has been used previously in researching primisulfuron metabolism in maize leaves15, but our results demonstrate that this protocol is also effective, accurate, and reproducible for measuring herbicide metabolism in a dicot weed species12. A major advantage of the excised leaf technique compared with whole-plant studies is that an excised leaf is independent of whole-plant translocation patterns of postemergence, systemic herbicides or differences in herbicide...

Herbicide resistance in weeds presents a serious threat to the global production of food and fiber1,2. Currently, thousands of resistant populations and biotypes from over a hundred weed species worldwide have been documented and studied3. A major mechanism that confers herbicide resistance in plants is the alteration of herbicide target-site genes and proteins, including genetic mutations that affect herbicide-protein binding kinetics or amplification of the target-site gene2. Metabolic detoxification via elevated activities of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase(P450) or glutathione S-transferase (GST) enzymes is another mechanism that confers herbicide resistance in weeds, which is distinct in several ways from target-site-based mechanisms2. Metabolic-based resistance has significant ramifications for whether plant fitness costs (a.k.a. fitness penalties) may result from the herbicide-resistance mechanism, as well as regarding the potential for a single detoxification mechanism to confer cross- or multiple-herbicide resistance in weed populations1,2,4. Generally, herbicide metabolism in plants can be divided into three distinct phases5. Phase I involves herbicide conversion or activation such as P450-mediated hydroxylation of aromatic rings or alkyl groups, or by N- or O-dealkylation reactions, leading to increased polarity and partial herbicide detoxification5,6. Newly introduced functional groups in Phase I can provide linkage sites for conjugation to reduced glutathione by GSTs or to glucose by UDP-dependent glycosyltransferases in Phase II5,7. For example, the major initial metabolite of primisulfuron-methyl in maize is hydroxy-primisulfuron-methyl8, which can be further metabolized to hydroxy-primisulfuron-glucoside (Phase II) and then transported to the vacuole for long-term storage or further metabolic processing5,6 (Phase III).
Waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus) is a difficult-to-control, dicot annual weed species that hinders the production of maize (Zea mays), soybean (Glycine max), and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) in the United States. The high degree of genetic diversity of waterhemp is facilitated by its dioecious biology and long-distance wind pollination, and a single female waterhemp plant can produce up to a million seeds9. These seeds are small and easily spread, which naturally endow waterhemp with an effective dispersal mechanism. Waterhemp displays continuous germination throughout the growing season9, and its seeds are able to germinate after several years of dormancy. Waterhemp is a C4 plant that possesses a higher growth rate than most broadleaf weeds in arable cropping systems10. In addition, numerous waterhemp populations are resistant to multiple families of herbicides3.
A population of waterhemp (designated MCR) from Illinois is resistant to 4-hydroxy-phenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)-inhibiting herbicides11, such as mesotrione, as well as to atrazine and acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicides, including primisulfuron-methyl, due to non-target-site based mechanisms12,13. A different population of waterhemp designated ACR14, which is primisulfuron-methyl-resistant (due to a mutation in the ALS gene) and atrazine-resistant but sensitive to mesotrione, and a waterhemp population designated WCS14 that is sensitive to primisulfuron-methyl, mesotrione, and atrazine were used in comparison with MCR in our prior research12 and current experiments (summarized in Table 1). Initial studies did not detect alterations in the HPPD gene sequence or expression levels, or reduced mesotrione uptake, in the MCR population when compared with mesotrione-sensitive populations12. However, metabolism studies with whole plants demonstrated significantly lower levels of parent mesotrione herbicide in MCR compared with ACR and WCS, which correlated with previous phenotypic responses to mesotrione11,12.
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Waterhemp Population</td>
			<td>Abbreviation</td>
			<td>Phenotype to Mesotrione</td>
			<td>Mesotrione Resistance Mechanism</td>
			<td>Phenotype to Primisulfuron</td>
			<td>Primisulfuron Resistance Mechanism</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>McLean County-Resistant</td>
			<td>MCR</td>
			<td>Resistant</td>
			<td>Metabolism*</td>
			<td>Resistant</td>
			<td>Metabolism</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adams County-Resistant</td>
			<td>ACR</td>
			<td>Sensitive</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Resistant</td>
			<td>Target-site mutation in ALS14</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wayne County-Sensitive</td>
			<td>WCS</td>
			<td>Sensitive</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Sensitive</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
* Non-target-site resistance mechanisms, other than enhanced metabolism, may also confer mesotrione resistance in the MCR population12.
Table 1: Description of waterhemp populations from Illinois used in this study.
In addition to determining rates of herbicide metabolism in intact waterhemp seedlings, a different experimental approach was developed and employed in our previous research to investigate metabolism by using an excised waterhemp leaf assay12 as well as various P450 inhibitors (e.g., tetcyclacis and malathion). This method was adapted specifically for waterhemp from a previous investigation of primisulfuron-methyl metabolism in excised maize leaves15, since the excised leaf assay had not yet been reported for conducting herbicide metabolism research in a dicot plant. The organophophosate insecticide malathion has been frequently used for in vivo and in vitro herbicide-metabolism research to indicate P450 involvement16. For example, tolerance and rapid metabolism of mesotrione in maize are due to P450-catalyzed ring hydroxylation, which was verified when malathion increased maize sensitivity to mesotrione17. Similarly, malathion inhibited metabolism of the ALS inhibitor primisulfuron-methyl in excised maize leaves15. A major advantage of the excised leaf technique is that data generated are independent of whole-plant translocation patterns, an important factor to consider when assessing metabolism of systemic, postemergence herbicides in plants. Consequently, this method allows quantitative and qualitative metabolic analyses to focus on a single treated leaf12.
A vegetative cloning strategy, in combination with the excised leaf protocol, was previously utilized in waterhemp to conduct metabolism studies12. Due to the outcrossing nature of waterhemp (separate male and female plants), and large degree of genetic diversity within dioecious Amaranthus species9, this protocol ensured that genetically-identical waterhemp seedlings were analyzed within the time-course experiments. This article demonstrates the utility of the excised leaf method for measuring rates of herbicide metabolism in a dicot weed (waterhemp). The quantity of parent herbicide remaining was determined at each time point (Figure 1) by non-linear least squares regression analysis, and was fit with a simple first-order curve in order to estimate the time for 50% of absorbed herbicide to degrade (DT50). Representative chromatograms from reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) are displayed for ALS-resistant and -sensitive waterhemp populations, which indicate the disappearance of parent herbicide and concomitant formation of polar metabolite(s) during a time-course study (Figure 2). The focus of our article is to describe and demonstrate the utility of the excised leaf assay in combination with a vegetative cloning method for determining precise and reproducible rates of herbicide metabolism in dicot plants, using uniformly ring-labeled (URL-14C) herbicides in three waterhemp populations that differ in their whole-plant responses to HPPD- and ALS-inhibiting herbicides (Table 1).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A1296</td>
			<td>for pre-germinating seeds</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potting medium</td>
			<td>Sun Gro Horticulture</td>
			<td>49040233</td>
			<td>for plant growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nutricote</td>
			<td>Agrivert&#160;</td>
			<td>TOTAL BLEND 13-13-13 T100</td>
			<td>slow-release fertilizer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Growth chamber E15</td>
			<td>Controlled Environments Limited</td>
			<td>20207</td>
			<td>plant culturing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP152-500</td>
			<td>buffer for excised leaves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl (concentrated)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A144500</td>
			<td>adjust pH of buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Murashige and Skoog (MS) salts&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M0404</td>
			<td>incubation of excised leaves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A452-4</td>
			<td>leaf washes after incubation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>179124</td>
			<td>plant extractions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetonitrile (HPLC grade)</td>
			<td>Macron Fine Chemicals</td>
			<td>MKH07610</td>
			<td>HPLC mobile phase</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formic acid&#160;</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt Analytical</td>
			<td>MK259205</td>
			<td>acidify mobile phase pH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro-centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5417R</td>
			<td>1.5 or 2.0 mL tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge (temperature controlled)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810R</td>
			<td>15 or 50 mL tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polypropylene centrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Corning Inc.</td>
			<td>430790</td>
			<td>15 mL, sterile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary evaporator</td>
			<td>B&#220;CHI</td>
			<td>R200</td>
			<td>concentrate plant samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid scintillation spectrometry (LSS)</td>
			<td>Packard Instruments</td>
			<td>104470</td>
			<td>quantify 14C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High-performance liquid chromatography</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>N2910401</td>
			<td>resolve herbicide metabolites</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flow scintillation analyzer&#160;</td>
			<td>LabLogic System</td>
			<td>1103303</td>
			<td>for HPLC analysis of 14C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hypersil Gold C18 column&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo-Scientific</td>
			<td>03-050-522&#160;</td>
			<td>reversed phase</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultima-Flo M cocktail</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>6013579</td>
			<td>for Flow-scintillation analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scintillation Cocktail (ScintiVerse BD)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SX18</td>
			<td>for LSS; biodegradable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboratory homogenizer</td>
			<td>Kinematica</td>
			<td>CH-6010&#160;</td>
			<td>homogenize leaf samples</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring rates of herbicide metabolism in dicot weeds with an excised leaf assay

In order to isolate and accurately determine rates of herbicide metabolism in an obligate-outcrossing dicot weed, waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), we developed an excised leaf assay combined with a vegetative cloning strategy to normalize herbicide uptake and remove translocation as contributing factors in herbicide-resistant (R) and &#8211;sensitive (S) waterhemp populations. Biokinetic analyses of organic pesticides in plants typically include the determination of uptake, translocation (delivery to the target site), metabolic fate, and interactions with the target site. Herbicide metabolism is an important parameter to measure in herbicide-resistant weeds and herbicide-tolerant crops, and is typically accomplished with whole-plant tests using radiolabeled herbicides. However, one difficulty with interpreting biokinetic parameters derived from whole-plant methods is that translocation is often affected by rates of herbicide metabolism, since polar metabolites are usually not mobile within the plant following herbicide detoxification reactions. Advantages of the protocol described in this manuscript include reproducible, accurate, and rapid determination of herbicide degradation rates in R and S populations, a substantial decrease in the amount of radiolabeled herbicide consumed, a large reduction in radiolabeled plant materials requiring further handling and disposal, and the ability to perform radiolabeled herbicide experiments in the lab or growth chamber instead of a greenhouse. As herbicide resistance continues to develop and spread in dicot weed populations worldwide, the excised leaf assay method developed and described herein will provide an invaluable technique for investigating non-target site-based resistance due to enhanced rates of herbicide metabolism and detoxification.

Large differences in rates of mesotrione metabolism were detected between either WCS or ACR and MCR (Figure 1). At each time point, MCR had metabolized mesotrione more rapidly than the two mesotrione-sensitive populations, WCS and ACR, which correlates with previous whole-plant phenotypic responses11. By cloning enough plants from a single parental plant from each population, herbicide metabolism time-course analyses are uniform and reproducible due to the lack of genetic vari...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Rates of Herbicide Metabolism in Dicot Weeds with an Excised Leaf Assay at JoVE.com

Measuring Rates of Herbicide Metabolism in Dicot Weeds with an Excised Leaf Assay

This manuscript describes how herbicide metabolism rates can be effectively quantified with excised leaves from a dicot weed, thereby reducing variability and removing any possible confounding effects of herbicide uptake or translocation typically observed in whole-plant assays.

In order to isolate and accurately determine rates of herbicide metabolism in an obligate-outcrossing dicot weed, waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus), we ...

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