Name: high-throughput screening of chemical compounds to elucidate their effects on bacterial persistence
Uploaded: 2021-02-23T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about High-throughput Screening of Chemical Compounds to Elucidate Their Effects on Bacterial Persistence at JoVE.com

We would like to thank the members of Orman Lab for their valuable inputs during this study. This study was funded by the NIH/NIAID K22AI125468 career transition award and a University of Houston startup grant.

1. Preparation of growth medium, ofloxacin solution and E. coli cell stocks
<ol>
	<li>Regular Luria-Bertani (LB) medium: Add 10 g/L of tryptone, 10 g/L of sodium chloride (NaCl) and 5 g/L of yeast extract in deionized (DI) water. Sterilize the medium by autoclaving.</li>
	<li>LB agar plates: Add 10 g/L of tryptone, 10 g/L of NaCl, 5 g/L of yeast extract and 15 g/L agar in DI water and sterilize the medium by autoclaving. At the desired temperature (~55 &#176;C), pour ~30 mL of agar medium into...

<ol>
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L., Meyer, K., Chaffee, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Observations+on+the+Mechanism+of+Action+of+Penicillin.">Observations on the Mechanism of Action of Penicillin.</a> Experimental Biology and Medicine. 50 (2), 281-285 (1942).</li><li>Bigger, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Treatment+of+staphylococcal+infections+with+penicillin+by+intermittent+sterilisation.">Treatment of staphylococcal infections with penicillin by intermittent sterilisation.</a> The Lancet. 244 (6320), 497-500 (1944).</li><li>Balaban, N. Q., Merrin, J., Chait, R., Kowalik, L., Leibler, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+persistence+as+a+phenotypic+switch.">Bacterial persistence as a phenotypic switch.</a> Science. 305 (5690), 1622-1625 (2004).</li><li>Keren, I., Kaldalu, N., Spoering, A., Wang, Y., Lewis, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Persister+cells+and+tolerance+to+antimicrobials.">Persister cells and tolerance to antimicrobials.</a> FEMS Microbiology Letters. 230 (1), 13-18 (2004).</li><li>Keren, I., Minami, S., Rubin, E., Lewis, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+and+transcriptome+analysis+of+mycobacterium+tuberculosis+persisters.">Characterization and transcriptome analysis of mycobacterium tuberculosis persisters.</a> mBio. 2 (3), (2011).</li><li>Mulcahy, L. R., Burns, J. L., Lory, S., Lewis, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emergence+of+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+Strains+Producing+High+Levels+of+Persister+Cells+in+Patients+with+Cystic+Fibrosis.">Emergence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains Producing High Levels of Persister Cells in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 192 (23), 6191-6199 (2010).</li><li>LaFleur, M. D., Kumamoto, C. A., Lewis, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Candida+albicans+biofilms+produce+antifungal-tolerant+persister+cells.">Candida albicans biofilms produce antifungal-tolerant persister cells.</a> Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 50 (11), 3839-3846 (2006).</li><li>Allison, K. R., Brynildsen, M. P., Collins, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metabolite-enabled+eradication+of+bacterial+persisters+by+aminoglycosides.">Metabolite-enabled eradication of bacterial persisters by aminoglycosides.</a> Nature. 473 (7346), 216-220 (2011).</li><li>Lechner, S., Lewis, K., Bertram, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Staphylococcus+aureus+persisters+tolerant+to+bactericidal+antibiotics.">Staphylococcus aureus persisters tolerant to bactericidal antibiotics.</a> Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology. 22 (4), 235-244 (2012).</li><li>Barrett, T. C., Mok, W. W. K., Murawski, A. M., Brynildsen, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+antibiotic+resistance+development+from+fluoroquinolone+persisters+after+a+single+exposure+to+antibiotic.">Enhanced antibiotic resistance development from fluoroquinolone persisters after a single exposure to antibiotic.</a> Nature Communications. 10 (1), 1177 (2019).</li><li>Windels, E. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+persistence+promotes+the+evolution+of+antibiotic+resistance+by+increasing+survival+and+mutation+rates.">Bacterial persistence promotes the evolution of antibiotic resistance by increasing survival and mutation rates.</a> ISME Journal. 13 (5), 1239-1251 (2019).</li><li>D&#246;rr, T., Lewis, K., Vuli&#263;, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SOS+response+induces+persistence+to+fluoroquinolones+in+Escherichia+coli.">SOS response induces persistence to fluoroquinolones in Escherichia coli.</a> PLoS Genetics. 5 (12), 1000760 (2009).</li><li>V&#246;lzing, K. G., Brynildsen, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stationary-phase+persisters+to+ofloxacin+sustain+DNA+damage+and+require+repair+systems+only+during+recovery.">Stationary-phase persisters to ofloxacin sustain DNA damage and require repair systems only during recovery.</a> mBio. 6 (5), (2015).</li><li>Grant, S. S., Kaufmann, B. B., Chand, N. S., Haseley, N., Hung, D. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eradication+of+bacterial+persisters+with+antibiotic-generated+hydroxyl+radicals.">Eradication of bacterial persisters with antibiotic-generated hydroxyl radicals.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (30), 12147-12152 (2012).</li><li>Gerdes, K., Maisonneuve, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+Persistence+and+Toxin-Antitoxin+Loci.">Bacterial Persistence and Toxin-Antitoxin Loci.</a> Annual Review of Microbiology. 66 (1), 103-123 (2012).</li><li>Orman, M. A., Brynildsen, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+stationary+phase+respiration+impairs+persister+formation+in+E.+coli.">Inhibition of stationary phase respiration impairs persister formation in E. coli.</a> Nature Communications. 6 (1), 7983 (2015).</li><li>Korch, S. B., Henderson, T. A., Hill, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+the+hipA7+allele+of+Escherichia+coli+and+evidence+that+high+persistence+is+governed+by+(p)ppGpp+synthesis.">Characterization of the hipA7 allele of Escherichia coli and evidence that high persistence is governed by (p)ppGpp synthesis.</a> Molecular Microbiology. 50 (4), 1199-1213 (2003).</li><li>Karki, P., Mohiuddin, S. G., Kavousi, P., Orman, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigating+the+effects+of+osmolytes+and+environmental+ph+on+bacterial+persisters.">Investigating the effects of osmolytes and environmental ph on bacterial persisters.</a> Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 64 (5), 02393 (2020).</li><li>Mohiuddin, S. G., Hoang, T., Saba, A., Karki, P., Orman, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identifying+Metabolic+Inhibitors+to+Reduce+Bacterial+Persistence.">Identifying Metabolic Inhibitors to Reduce Bacterial Persistence.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 11, 472 (2020).</li><li>Brooun, A., Liu, S., Lewis, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+dose-response+study+of+antibiotic+resistance+in+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+biofilms.">A dose-response study of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms.</a> Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 44 (3), 640-646 (2000).</li><li>Luidalepp, H., J&#245;ers, A., Kaldalu, N., Tenson, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age+of+inoculum+strongly+influences+persister+frequency+and+can+mask+effects+of+mutations+implicated+in+altered+persistence.">Age of inoculum strongly influences persister frequency and can mask effects of mutations implicated in altered persistence.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 193 (14), 3598-3605 (2011).</li><li>Baba, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Construction+of+Escherichia+coli+K-12+in-frame,+single-gene+knockout+mutants:+The+Keio+collection.">Construction of Escherichia coli K-12 in-frame, single-gene knockout mutants: The Keio collection.</a> Molecular Systems Biology. 2, 0008 (2006).</li><li>Zaslaver, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comprehensive+library+of+fluorescent+transcriptional+reporters+for+Escherichia+coli.">A comprehensive library of fluorescent transcriptional reporters for Escherichia coli.</a> Nature Methods. 3 (8), 623-628 (2006).</li><li>Hajmeer, M., Ceylan, E., Marsden, J. 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The high throughput persister assay described here was developed to elucidate the effects of various chemicals on E. coli persistence. In addition to commercial PM plates, microarrays can be constructed manually as described in step 4.2. Moreover, the protocol presented here is flexible and can be used to screen other microarrays, such as drug panels and cell libraries, that are in 96 well plate formats. The experimental conditions including the growth phase, inoculation rate and medium can be adjusted to test t...

Bacterial cultures contain a small subpopulation of persister cells that are temporarily tolerant to unusually high levels of antibiotics. Persister cells are genetically identical to their antibiotic-sensitive kins, and their survival has been attributed to transient growth inhibition1. Persister cells were first discovered by Gladys Hobby2 but the term was first used by Joseph Bigger when he identified them in penicillin-treated Staphylococcus pyogenes cultures3. A seminal study published by Balaban et al.4 discovered two persister types: type I variants that are primarily formed by passage through the stationary phase, and type II variants that are continuously generated during the exponential growth. Persisters are detected by clonogenic survival assays, in which culture samples are taken at various intervals during antibiotic treatments, washed, and plated on a typical growth medium to count the surviving cells that can colonize in the absence of antibiotics. The existence of persisters in a cell culture is assessed by a biphasic kill curve4,5 &#160;where the initial exponential decay indicates the death of antibiotic-sensitive cells. However, the killing trend decreases over time, eventually leading to a plateau region which represents the surviving persister cells. &#160;
Persister cells have been associated with various diseases such as tuberculosis6, cystic fibrosis7, candidiasis8 and urinary tract infections9. Almost all microorganisms tested so far were found to generate persister phenotypes, including highly pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis6, Staphylococcus aureus10, Pseudomonas aeruginosa7 and Candida albicans8. Recent studies also provide evidence of the rise of multidrug-resistant mutants from persister subpopulations11,12. Substantial efforts in this field have revealed that persistence mechanisms are highly complex and diverse; both stochastic and deterministic factors associated with the SOS response13,14, reactive oxygen species (ROS)15, toxin/antitoxin (TA) systems16, autophagy or self-digestion17 and ppGpp-related stringent response18 are known to facilitate persister formation.
Despite significant progress in understanding the persistence phenotype, the effects of osmolytes on bacterial persistence have not been fully understood. Since the maintenance of optimal osmotic pressure is a necessity for cells&#8217; growth, proper functioning and survival, an in-depth study of osmolytes could lead to potential targets for anti-persister strategies. Although laborious, high-throughput screening is a very effective approach for identifying metabolites and other chemicals that play a crucial role in the persistence phenotype19,20. In this work, we will discuss our published method19, where we have used microarrays, i.e., 96 well plates containing various osmolytes (e.g., sodium chloride, urea, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, potassium chloride), to identify osmolytes that significantly influence E. coli persistence.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1204px;" width="1202">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:334px;">14-ml test tube</td>
			<td style="width:201px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">14-959-1B</td>
			<td style="width:507px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">E. coli strain MG1655</td>
			<td>Princeton University</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Obtained from Brynildsen lab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Flat-bottom 96-well plate</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>5665-5161</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Gas permeable sealing membrane</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>102097-058</td>
			<td>Sterilized by gamma irradiation and free of cytotoxins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Half-area flat-bottom 96-well plate</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>82050-062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">LB agar</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1425-2</td>
			<td>Molecular genetics grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ofloxacin salt</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>103466-232</td>
			<td>HPLC &#8805;97.5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Phenotype microarray (PM-9 and PM-10)</td>
			<td>Biolog</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>PM-9 and PM-10 plates contained various osmolytes and buffers respectively</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Round-bottom 96-well plate</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>5665-0161</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S271-500</td>
			<td>Certified ACS grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium nitrate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AC424345000</td>
			<td>ACS reagent grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium nitrite</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AAA186680B</td>
			<td>98% purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Square petri dish</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875711A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tryptone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1421-500</td>
			<td>Molecular genetics grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Varioskan lux multi mode microplate reader</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>VLBL00D0</td>
			<td>Used for optical density measurement at 600 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1422-100</td>
			<td>Molecular genetics grade</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

high-throughput screening of chemical compounds to elucidate their effects on bacterial persistence

Bacterial persisters are defined as a small subpopulation of phenotypic variants with the capability of tolerating high concentrations of antibiotics. They are an important health concern as they have been associated with recurrent chronic infections. Although stochastic and deterministic dynamics of stress-related mechanisms are known to play a significant role in persistence, mechanisms underlying the phenotypic switch to/from the persistence state are not completely understood. While persistence factors triggered by environmental signals (e.g., depletion of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen sources) have been extensively studied, the impacts of osmolytes on persistence are yet to be determined. Using microarrays (i.e., 96 well plates containing various chemicals), we have designed an approach to elucidate the effects of various osmolytes on Escherichia coli persistence in a high throughput manner. This approach is transformative as it can be readily adapted for other screening arrays, such as drug panels and gene knockout libraries.

Figure 1 describes our experimental protocol. The dilution/growth cycle experiments (see Protocol 2) were adapted from a study conducted by Keren et al.5 to eliminate the persisters originating from the overnight cultures. Figure 2A is a representative image of agar plates used to determine CFU levels of cell cultures before and after OFX treatment. In these experiments, cells were cultured in modified LB medium with osmolytes in half-are...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about High-throughput Screening of Chemical Compounds to Elucidate Their Effects on Bacterial Persistence at JoVE.com

High-throughput Screening of Chemical Compounds to Elucidate Their Effects on Bacterial Persistence

In this method paper, we present a high-throughput screening strategy to identify chemical compounds, such as osmolytes, that have a significant impact on bacterial persistence.

Bacterial persisters are defined as a small subpopulation of phenotypic variants with the capability of tolerating high concentrations of antibiotics. ...

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