Name: double labeling immunofluorescence using antibodies from the same species to study host-pathogen interactions
Uploaded: 2021-07-10T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Double Labeling Immunofluorescence using Antibodies from the Same Species to Study Host-Pathogen Interactions at JoVE.com

This work was supported by Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP 2010/19547-1; 2018/03677-5) to MMAB, by Funda&#231;&#227;o de Apoio ao Ensino, Pesquisa e Assist&#234;ncia- FAEPA to MMAB and by Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior- Brasil (CAPES) - finance code 001. CG-C received a master and doctoral fellowship from CAPES and LAMT-S received doctoral fellowship from CNPq. We thank Elizabete R. Milani for confocal microscopy assistance and Dr. Dario Zamboni for providing LLC-MK2 cells (Ribeirao Preto Medical School, USP).

1. Cell and parasite cultures
<ol>
	<li>Grow LLC-MK2 (Rhesus Monkey Kidney Epithelial) cells from the American Type Culture Collection (CCL-7) in a 25 cm2&#160;cell culture flask containing in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (Fetal Bovine Serum) and antibiotics (100 U/mL Penicillin and 100 &#181;g/mL Streptomycin) at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2 17.</li>
	<li>Infect LLC-MK2 cells with Trypanosoma cruzi (Y strain) according to a previous protocol <sup...

<ol>
	<li>Lloyd, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+proteins+hijacked+by+mammalian+cytoplasmic+plus+strand+RNA+viruses.">Nuclear proteins hijacked by mammalian cytoplasmic plus strand RNA viruses.</a> Virology. 479-480, 457-474 (2015).</li><li>Casadevall, A., Pirofski, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Host-pathogen+interactions:+basic+concepts+of+microbial+commensalism,+colonization,+infection,+and+disease.">Host-pathogen interactions: basic concepts of microbial commensalism, colonization, infection, and disease.</a> Infection and Immunity. 68 (12), 6511-6518 (2000).</li><li>Sidik, S. M., Salsman, J., Dellaire, G., Rohde, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shigella+infection+interferes+with+SUMOylation+and+increases+PML-NB+number.">Shigella infection interferes with SUMOylation and increases PML-NB number.</a> PLoS One. 10 (4), 0122585 (2015).</li><li>Robert McMaster, W., Morrison, C. J., Kobor, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epigenetics:+A+New+Model+for+Intracellular+Parasite-Host+Cell+Regulation.">Epigenetics: A New Model for Intracellular Parasite-Host Cell Regulation.</a> Trends in Parasitology. 32 (7), 515-521 (2016).</li><li>Casali, P., Schettino, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+and+function+of+natural+antibodies.">Structure and function of natural antibodies.</a> Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 210, 167-179 (1996).</li><li>Ansorg, A., Bornkessel, K., Witte, O. W., Urbach, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunohisto-chemistry+and+multiple+labeling+with+antibodies+from+the+same+host+species+to+study+adult+hippocampal+neurogenesis.">Immunohisto-chemistry and multiple labeling with antibodies from the same host species to study adult hippocampal neurogenesis.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (98), e52551 (2015).</li><li>T&#243;th, Z. E., Mezey, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+visualization+of+multi-ple+antigens+with+tyramide+signal+amplification+using+antibodies+from+the+same+species.">Simultaneous visualization of multi-ple antigens with tyramide signal amplification using antibodies from the same species.</a> Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 55 (6), 545 (2007).</li><li>Ma, B., Winkelbach, S., Lindenmaier, W., Dittmar, K. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Six-colour+fluorescent+imaging+of+lymphoid+tissue+based+on+colour+addition+theory.">Six-colour fluorescent imaging of lymphoid tissue based on colour addition theory.</a> Acta Histochemica. 108 (4), 243 (2006).</li><li>Buchwalow, I. B., Minin, E. A., Boecker, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+multicolor+fluorescence+immunostaining+technique+for+simultaneous+antigen+targeting.">A multicolor fluorescence immunostaining technique for simultaneous antigen targeting.</a> Acta Histochemica. 107 (2), 143 (2005).</li><li>Nakamura, A., Uchihara, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dual+enhancement+of+triple+immunofluorescence+using+two+antibodies+from+the+same+species.">Dual enhancement of triple immunofluorescence using two antibodies from the same species.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 135 (1-2), 67 (2004).</li><li>McCormick, J., Lim, I., Nichols, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuropeptide+precursor+pro-cessing+detected+by+triple+immunolabeling.">Neuropeptide precursor pro-cessing detected by triple immunolabeling.</a> Cell and Tissue Research. 297 (2), 197 (1999).</li><li>Shindler, K. S., Roth, K. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Double+immunofluorescent+staining+using+two+unconjugated+primary+antisera+raised+in+the+same+species.">Double immunofluorescent staining using two unconjugated primary antisera raised in the same species.</a> Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 44 (11), 1331 (1996).</li><li>Wang, B. L., Larsson, L. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simultaneous+demonstration+of+multiple+anti-gens+by+indirect+immunofluorescence+or+immunogold+staining.+Novel+light+and+electron+microscopical+double+and+triple+staining+method+employing+primary+antibodies+from+the+same+species.">Simultaneous demonstration of multiple anti-gens by indirect immunofluorescence or immunogold staining. Novel light and electron microscopical double and triple staining method employing primary antibodies from the same species.</a> Histochemistry. 83 (1), 47 (1985).</li><li>Lewis Carl, S. A., Gillete-Ferguson, I., Ferguson, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+indirect+immunofluorescence+procedure+for+staining+the+same+cryosection+with+two+mouse+monoclonal+primary+antibodies.">An indirect immunofluorescence procedure for staining the same cryosection with two mouse monoclonal primary antibodies.</a> Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. 41 (8), 1273-1278 (1993).</li><li>Pranchevicius, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myosin+Va+phosphorylated+on+Ser1650+is+found+in+nuclear+speckles+and+redistributes+to+nucleoli+upon+inhibition+of+transcription.">Myosin Va phosphorylated on Ser1650 is found in nuclear speckles and redistributes to nucleoli upon inhibition of transcription.</a> Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton. 65 (6), 441-456 (2008).</li><li>Moreira, B. P., de Castro, C. G., Prado, L. C. d. S., da Fonseca, C. K., Baqui, M. M. A., M&#233;ndez-Vilas, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+antibodies+from+the+same+host+species+in+double+labeling+immunofluorescence+on+trypanosome+cytoskeleton.">Use of antibodies from the same host species in double labeling immunofluorescence on trypanosome cytoskeleton.</a> Microscopy and Imaging Science: Practical Approaches to Applied Research and Education. 7, 374-378 (2016).</li><li>Hull, R. N., Cherry, W. R., Tritch, O. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+characteristics+of+monkey+kidney+cell+strains+LLC-MK1,+LLC-MK2,+and+LLC-MK2+(NCTC-3196)+and+their+utility+in+virus+research.">Growth characteristics of monkey kidney cell strains LLC-MK1, LLC-MK2, and LLC-MK2 (NCTC-3196) and their utility in virus research.</a> Journal of Experimental Medicine. 115, 903-918 (1962).</li><li>Stecconi-Silva, R. B., Andreoli, W. K., Mortara, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parameters+affecting+cellular+invasion+and+escape+from+the+parasitophorous+vacuole+by+different+infective+forms+of+Trypanosoma+cruzi.">Parameters affecting cellular invasion and escape from the parasitophorous vacuole by different infective forms of Trypanosoma cruzi.</a> Mem&#243;rias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 98 (7), 953-958 (2003).</li><li>de Souza, W., de Carvalho, T. M., Barrias, E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Review+on+Trypanosoma+cruzi:+Host+Cell+Interaction.">Review on Trypanosoma cruzi: Host Cell Interaction.</a> International Journal of Cell Biology. 2010, 295394 (2010).</li><li>Burleigh, B. A., Woolsey, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+signalling+and+Trypanosoma+cruzi+invasion.">Cell signalling and Trypanosoma cruzi invasion.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 4 (11), 701-711 (2002).</li><li>Baqui, M. M. A., Takata, C. S., Milder, R. V., Pudles, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+giant+protein+associated+with+the+anterior+pole+of+a+trypanosomatid+cell+body+skeleton.">A giant protein associated with the anterior pole of a trypanosomatid cell body skeleton.</a> European Journal of Cell Biology. 70, 243-249 (1996).</li><li>Baqui, M. M., Milder, R., Mortara, R. A., Pudles, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+and+in+vitro+phosphorylation+and+subcellular+localization+of+trypanosomatid+cytoskeletal+giant+proteins.">In vivo and in vitro phosphorylation and subcellular localization of trypanosomatid cytoskeletal giant proteins.</a> Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton. 47 (1), 25-37 (2000).</li><li>Baqui, M. M., De Moraes, N., Milder, R. V., Pudles, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+giant+phosphoprotein+localized+at+the+spongiome+region+of+Crithidia+luciliae+thermophila.">A giant phosphoprotein localized at the spongiome region of Crithidia luciliae thermophila.</a> Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 47 (6), 532-537 (2000).</li><li>Jean-Philippe, J., Paz, S., Caputi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=hnRNP+A1:+the+Swiss+army+knife+of+gene+expression.">hnRNP A1: the Swiss army knife of gene expression.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 14 (9), 18999-19024 (2013).</li><li>Vidarsson, G., Dekkers, G., Rispens, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=IgG+subclasses+and+allotypes:+from+structure+to+effector+functions.">IgG subclasses and allotypes: from structure to effector functions.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 5, 520 (2014).</li></ol>

Here, we present a protocol to perform double immunolabeling in Trypanosoma cruzi infected cells using two different antibodies from the same host species. To study, with more detail, the implications of the infection, structures in the host cell such as the nucleus or cytosolic organelles can be labeled using this protocol. Also, it can be used in the post-embedding thin section immunogold labeling method. This approach helps to overcome the obstacle of having few antibodies available to study trypanosomatids a...

To study the interaction of the pathogen with the host cell at the cellular level provides essential information on the underlying causes of the disease since different groups,&#160;such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoa,&#160;can infect most host cell types1,2,3,4. It can also help develop and identify potential therapeutic targets that can slow or inhibit the growth of the pathogen. In live conditions, the produced antibodies are responsible for recognizing self-components, antigens from viruses, bacterial components or products, fungi, parasites, and others5.
For this purpose, antibodies are widely used tools, mainly for understanding the location and function of cellular structures and proteins. Several studies using multiple antibody labeling demonstrate that additional blocking steps contribute to the specificity of the immunolocalization. In addition, most described protocols use specific commercial monoclonal antibodies, including antibodies from the same host species6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14.
Usually, double labeling immunofluorescence uses two antibodies raised in different species to stain the cell structures of interest or the pathogens and the host cells to see the interaction between them. However, this can be a problem when no commercial monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies specific for some pathogens are available to perform the double labeling. Also, there are commercially available antibody conjugation kits, and it is possible to conjugate the primary antibodies directly to the fluorophore by a succinimidyl ester reaction15. The problem is that these kits are often expensive, and it is necessary to have enough antibodies to label them. Knowing this, we successfully developed a double immunofluorescence method using two different antibodies raised in the same species to study protein localization in Trypanosoma brucei16. However, for intracellular parasites, including Trypanosoma cruzi, this approach has not been demonstrated. Here, we show how to perform double labeling immunofluorescence to study intracellular T. cruzi parasites and the host cell using primary antibodies raised in the same species without cross-reactions. Besides this method, a triple immunofluorescence labeling has been established with the addition of the third antibody from a different species. These approaches help when the source of antibodies is limited and can be used in any cell type.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 488 - IgG2b antibody</td>
			<td>Life technologies, USA</td>
			<td>A21141</td>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AffiniPure Rabbit anti-mouse IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td>Jackson Immunoresearch, USA</td>
			<td>315-005-003</td>
			<td>Anti-mouse antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 488 - IgG F (ab&#39;)2 (H+L) antibody</td>
			<td>Life technologies, USA</td>
			<td>A11017</td>
			<td>Goat anti mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 594 IgG1 antibody</td>
			<td>Life technologies, USA</td>
			<td>A21125</td>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 647 - IgG F (ab&#39;)2 (H+L) antibody</td>
			<td>Life technologies, USA</td>
			<td>A21237</td>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-hnRNPA1 antibody IgG2b</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, USA</td>
			<td>R4528</td>
			<td>Mouse antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-TcFAZ (T. cruzi FAZ protein) antibody</td>
			<td>Our lab</td>
			<td>In-house</td>
			<td>Mouse antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, USA</td>
			<td>A2153-10G</td>
			<td>Albumin protein</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Detergent Igepal CA-630</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, USA</td>
			<td>I3021</td>
			<td>Nonionic Detergent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco, Thermo fisher scientific, USA</td>
			<td>12657-029</td>
			<td>Serum</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco, Thermo fisher scientific, USA</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td>Antibiotic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phalloidin Alexa Fluor 594</td>
			<td>Life technologies, USA</td>
			<td>A12381</td>
			<td>Actin marker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ProLong Gold antifade with DAPI</td>
			<td>Life technologies, USA</td>
			<td>P36935</td>
			<td>Mounting media reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI 1640 1X with L-glutamine</td>
			<td>Corning, USA</td>
			<td>10-040-CV</td>
			<td>Cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, USA</td>
			<td>T4049-100ML</td>
			<td>Bioreagent</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

double labeling immunofluorescence using antibodies from the same species to study host-pathogen interactions

Nowadays, it is possible to find a wide range of molecular tools available to study parasite-host cell interactions. However, some limitations exist to obtain commercial monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies that recognize specific cell structures and proteins in parasites. Besides, there are few commercial antibodies available to label trypanosomatids. Usually, polyclonal antibodies against parasites are prepared in-house and could be more challenging to use in combination with other antibodies produced in the same species. Here, the protocol demonstrates how to use polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies raised in the same species to perform double labeling immunofluorescence to study host cell and pathogen interactions. To achieve the double labeling immunofluorescence, it is crucial to incubate first the mouse polyclonal antibody and then follow the incubation with the secondary mouse IgG antibody conjugated to any fluorochrome. After that, an additional blocking step is necessary to prevent any trace of the primary antibody from being recognized by the next secondary antibody. Then, a mouse monoclonal antibody and its specific IgG subclass secondary antibody conjugated to a different fluorochrome are added to the sample at the appropriate times. Additionally, it is possible to perform triple labeling immunofluorescence using a third antibody raised in a different species. Also, structures such as nuclei and actin can be stained subsequently with their specific compounds or labels. Thus, these approaches presented here can be adjusted for any cell whose sources of primary antibodies are limited.

Here, we show how to study host-parasite interactions by immunofluorescence when the source of antibodies is limited due to the unavailability of commercial antibodies that recognize specific structures and proteins in trypanosomatids.
Among trypanosomatids, T. cruzi has one of the most complex life cycles involving various development stages between vertebrate and invertebrate hosts 19. During the T. cruzi life cycle, at an early stage of mammalian in...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Double Labeling Immunofluorescence using Antibodies from the Same Species to Study Host-Pathogen Interactions at JoVE.com

Double Labeling Immunofluorescence using Antibodies from the Same Species to Study Host-Pathogen Interactions

Here, the protocol describes how to perform double labeling immunofluorescence using primary antibodies raised in the same species to study host-pathogen interactions. Also, it can include the third antibody from a different host in this protocol. This approach can be made in any cell type and pathogens.

Nowadays, it is possible to find a wide range of molecular tools available to study parasite-host cell interactions. However, some limitations exist to ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Use of an Optical Trap for Study of Host-Pathogen Interactions for Dynamic Live Cell Imaging

Dynamic live cell imaging allows direct visualization of real-time interactions between cells of the immune system1, 2; however, the lack of spatial and ...

Separation of Single-stranded DNA, Double-stranded DNA and RNA from an Environmental Viral Community Using Hydroxyapatite Chromatography

Viruses, particularly bacteriophages (phages), are the most numerous biological entities on Earth1,2.  Viruses modulate host cell abundance and diversity, ...

Use of the EpiAirway Model for Characterizing Long-term Host-pathogen Interactions

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae  (NTHi) are human-adapted Gram-negative bacteria that can cause recurrent and chronic infections of the respiratory ...

A Comparative Approach to Characterize the Landscape of Host-Pathogen Protein-Protein Interactions

Significant efforts were gathered to generate  large-scale comprehensive protein-protein interaction network maps. This is  instrumental to understand the ...

Imaging InlC Secretion to Investigate Cellular Infection by the Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Imaging InlC Secretion to Investigate Cellular Infection by the Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes

Bacterial intracellular  pathogens can be conceived as molecular tools to dissect cellular signaling  cascades due to their capacity to exquisitely ...

Isolation of Double Negative &#945;&#946; T Cells from the Kidney

Isolation of Double Negative ÃƒÅ½Ã‚Â±ÃƒÅ½Ã‚Â² T Cells from the Kidney

There is currently no standard protocol for the isolation of DN T cells from the non-lymphoid tissues despite their increasingly reported involvement in ...

Use of Shigella flexneri to Study Autophagy-Cytoskeleton Interactions

Use of Shigella flexneri to Study Autophagy-Cytoskeleton Interactions

Shigella flexneri is an intracellular pathogen that can escape from phagosomes to reach the cytosol, and polymerize the host actin cytoskeleton to promote ...

Generation of Escape Variants of Neutralizing Influenza Virus Monoclonal Antibodies

Influenza viruses exhibit a remarkable ability to adapt and evade the host immune response. One way is through antigenic changes that occur on the surface ...

Evaluation of Host-Pathogen Responses and Vaccine Efficacy in Mice

Vaccines are a 20th century medical marvel. They have dramatically reduced the morbidity and mortality caused by infectious diseases and contributed to a ...

Human Colonoid Monolayers to Study Interactions Between Pathogens, Commensals, and Host Intestinal Epithelium

Human 3-dimensional (3D) enteroid or colonoid cultures derived from crypt base stem cells are currently the most advanced ex vivo model of the intestinal ...