This work was supported by Illinois State University School of Biological Sciences startup funds, Illinois State University New Faculty Initiative Grant, and the NIAID grant R15AI164585 (to J.-U. D.). G.M.A. was supported by the Illinois State University Undergraduate Research Support Program (to G.M.A.). K. P. H. was supported by a RISE fellowship provided by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). The authors thank Dr. Uwe Landau and Dr. Carsten Meyer from Largentech Vertriebs GmbH for providing the AGXX powder. Figures 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5 were generated with Biorender.

1. Stress treatment of E. coli strains MG1655 and CFT073
<ol>
	<li>Inoculate 5 mL of lysogeny broth (LB) medium with a single colony of commensal E. coli strain MG1655 and uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) strain CFT073, respectively, and incubate for 14-16 h (overnight) at 37 &#176;C and 300 rpm. 
	NOTE: Escherichia coli CFT073 is a human pathogen. Handling of CFT073 must be performed with appropriate biosafety measures in a Biosafety Level-2 certified lab.</li>
	<li>Dilute each str...

<ol>
	<li>Dahl, J. -. U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HdeB+functions+as+an+acid-protective+chaperone+in+bacteria.">HdeB functions as an acid-protective chaperone in bacteria.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 290 (1), 65-75 (2015).</li><li>Foit, L., George, J. S., Zhang, B. W., Brooks, C. L., Bardwell, J. C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chaperone+activation+by+unfolding.">Chaperone activation by unfolding.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (14), 1254-1262 (2013).</li><li>Sultana, S., Foti, A., Dahl, J. -. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+defense+systems+against+the+neutrophilic+oxidant+hypochlorous+acid.">Bacterial defense systems against the neutrophilic oxidant hypochlorous acid.</a> Infection and Immunity. 88 (7), 00964 (2020).</li><li>Dahl, J. -. U., Gray, M. J., Jakob, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+quality+control+under+oxidative+stress+conditions.">Protein quality control under oxidative stress conditions.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 427 (7), 1549-1563 (2015).</li><li>Groitl, B., Dahl, J. -. U., Schroeder, J. W., Jakob, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+defense+systems+against+microbicidal+oxidants.">Pseudomonas aeruginosa defense systems against microbicidal oxidants.</a> Molecular Microbiology. 106 (3), 335-350 (2017).</li><li>Casadevall, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+restriction+as+an+antimicrobial+function+of+fever.">Thermal restriction as an antimicrobial function of fever.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 12 (5), 1005577 (2016).</li><li>Richter, K., Haslbeck, M., Buchner, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+heat+shock+response:+life+on+the+verge+of+death.">The heat shock response: life on the verge of death.</a> Molecular Cell. 40 (2), 253-266 (2010).</li><li>Van Loi, V., Busche, T., Preu&#223;, T., Kalinowski, J., Bernhardt, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+AGXX+&#174;+antimicrobial+coating+causes+a+thiol-specific+oxidative+stress+response+and+protein+S-bacillithiolation+in+Staphylococcus+aureus.">The AGXX &#174; antimicrobial coating causes a thiol-specific oxidative stress response and protein S-bacillithiolation in Staphylococcus aureus.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 9, 3037 (2018).</li><li>Anfinsen, C. B., Scheraga, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+and+theoretical+aspects+of+protein+folding.">Experimental and theoretical aspects of protein folding.</a> Advances in Protein Chemistry. 29, 205-300 (1975).</li><li>Schramm, F. D., Schroeder, K., Jonas, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+aggregation+in+bacteria.">Protein aggregation in bacteria.</a> FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 44 (1), 54-72 (2020).</li><li>Tomoyasu, T., Mogk, A., Langen, H., Goloubinoff, P., Bukau, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+dissection+of+the+roles+of+chaperones+and+proteases+in+protein+folding+and+degradation+in+the+Escherichia+coli+cytosol.">Genetic dissection of the roles of chaperones and proteases in protein folding and degradation in the Escherichia coli cytosol.</a> Molecular Microbiology. 40 (2), 397-413 (2001).</li><li>Gray, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polyphosphate+is+a+primordial+chaperone.">Polyphosphate is a primordial chaperone.</a> Molecular Cell. 53 (5), 689-699 (2014).</li><li>Weids, A. J., Ibstedt, S., Tam&#225;s, M. J., Grant, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+stress+conditions+result+in+aggregation+of+proteins+with+similar+properties.">Distinct stress conditions result in aggregation of proteins with similar properties.</a> Scientific Reports. 6, 24554 (2016).</li><li>Mogk, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+thermolabile+Escherichia+coli+proteins:+prevention+and+reversion+of+aggregation+by+DnaK+and+ClpB.">Identification of thermolabile Escherichia coli proteins: prevention and reversion of aggregation by DnaK and ClpB.</a> EMBO Journal. 18 (24), 6934-6949 (1999).</li><li>Fay, A., Glickman, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+essential+nonredundant+role+for+mycobacterial+DnaK+in+native+protein+folding.">An essential nonredundant role for mycobacterial DnaK in native protein folding.</a> PLoS Genetics. 10 (7), 1004516 (2014).</li><li>Schramm, F. D., Heinrich, K., Th&#252;ring, M., Bernhardt, J., Jonas, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+essential+regulatory+function+of+the+DnaK+chaperone+dictates+the+decision+between+proliferation+and+maintenance+in+Caulobacter+crescentus.">An essential regulatory function of the DnaK chaperone dictates the decision between proliferation and maintenance in Caulobacter crescentus.</a> PLoS Genetics. 13 (12), 1007148 (2017).</li><li>Maisonneuve, E., Fraysse, L., Moinier, D., Dukan, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Existence+of+abnormal+protein+aggregates+in+healthy+Escherichia+coli+cells.">Existence of abnormal protein aggregates in healthy Escherichia coli cells.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 190 (3), 887-893 (2008).</li><li>Heiss, A., Freisinger, B., Held-F&#246;hn, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+antibacterial+activity+of+silver-ruthenium+coated+hollow+microparticles.">Enhanced antibacterial activity of silver-ruthenium coated hollow microparticles.</a> Biointerphases. 12 (5), (2017).</li><li>Papnayotou, I., Sun, B., Roth, A. F., Davis, N. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+aggregation+induced+during+glass+bead+lysis+of+yeast.">Protein aggregation induced during glass bead lysis of yeast.</a> Yeast. 27 (10), 801-816 (2010).</li><li>Chuang, S. E., Blattner, F. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+twenty-six+new+heat+shock+genes+of+Escherichia+coli.">Characterization of twenty-six new heat shock genes of Escherichia coli.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 175 (16), 5242-5252 (1993).</li><li>Imlay, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+molecular+mechanisms+and+physiological+consequences+of+oxidative+stress:+Lessons+from+a+model+bacterium.">The molecular mechanisms and physiological consequences of oxidative stress: Lessons from a model bacterium.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 11 (7), 443-454 (2013).</li><li>M&#252;hlhofer, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+heat+shock+response+in+yeast+maintains+protein+homeostasis+by+chaperoning+and+replenishing+proteins.">The heat shock response in yeast maintains protein homeostasis by chaperoning and replenishing proteins.</a> Cell Reports. 29 (13), 4593-4607 (2019).</li><li>Chandrangsu, P., Rensing, C., Helmann, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metal+homeostasis+and+resistance+in+bacteria.">Metal homeostasis and resistance in bacteria.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 15, 338-350 (2017).</li><li>Stevens, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HSP60/10+chaperonin+systems+are+inhibited+by+a+variety+of+approved+drugs,+natural+products,+and+known+bioactive+molecules.">HSP60/10 chaperonin systems are inhibited by a variety of approved drugs, natural products, and known bioactive molecules.</a> Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 29 (9), 1106-1112 (2019).</li><li>Schramm, F. D., Schroeder, K., Alvelid, J., Testa, I., Jonas, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth-driven+displacement+of+protein+aggregates+along+the+cell+length+ensures+partitioning+to+both+daughter+cells+in+Caulobacter+crescentus.">Growth-driven displacement of protein aggregates along the cell length ensures partitioning to both daughter cells in Caulobacter crescentus.</a> Molecular Microbiology. 111 (6), 1430-1448 (2019).</li></ol>

This protocol describes an optimized methodology for the analysis of protein aggregate formation after treatment of different E. coli strains with a proteotoxic antimicrobial. The protocol allows the simultaneous extraction of insoluble and soluble protein fractions from treated and untreated E. coli cells. Compared to existing protocols for protein aggregate isolation from cells14,15,16,<sup class="...

Bacteria are inevitably exposed to a myriad of environmental stresses, including low pH (e.g., in the mammalian stomach)1,2, reactive oxygen and chlorine species (ROS/RCS) (e.g., during oxidative burst in phagocytes)3,4,5, elevated temperatures (e.g., in hot springs or during heat-shock)6,7, and several potent antimicrobials (e.g., AGXX used in this protocol)8. Proteins are particularly vulnerable to any of these stressors, and exposure can provoke protein un-/misfolding that then seeds aggregation. All organisms employ protective systems that allow them to cope with protein misfolding9. However, severe stress can overwhelm the protein quality control machinery and disrupt the secondary and/or tertiary structure of proteins, which ultimately inactivates proteins. As a consequence, protein aggregates can severely impair critical cellular functions required for bacterial growth and survival, stress resistance, and virulence10. Therefore, research focusing on protein aggregation and its consequences in bacteria is a relevant topic due to its potential impact on infectious disease control.
Heat-induced protein unfolding and aggregation are often reversible7. In contrast, other proteotoxic stresses, such as oxidative stress, can cause irreversible protein modifications through the oxidation of specific amino acid side chains resulting in protein un-/misfolding and, eventually, protein aggregation4. Stress-induced formation of insoluble protein aggregates has been extensively studied in the context of molecular chaperones and their protective functions in yeast and bacteria11,12,13. Several protocols have been published that utilize a variety of biochemical techniques for the isolation and analysis of insoluble protein aggregates14,15,16,17. The existing protocols have mainly been used to study bacterial protein aggregation upon heat-shock and/or identification of molecular chaperones. While these protocols have certainly been an advancement to the field, there are some major inconveniences in the experimental procedures because they require (i) a large bacterial culture volume of up to 10 L14,17, (ii) complicated physical disruption processes, including the use of cell disruptors, French press, and/or sonication14,15,17, or (iii) time-consuming repeated washing and incubation steps15,16,17.
This paper describes a modified protocol that aims to address the limitations of the previous approaches and allows the analysis of the amount of protein aggregates formed in two different Escherichia coli strains after treatment with a proteotoxic antimicrobial surface coating. The coating is composed of metal-silver (Ag) and ruthenium (Ru)-conditioned with ascorbic acid, and its antimicrobial activity is achieved by the generation of reactive oxygen species8,18. Herein is a detailed description of the preparation of the bacterial culture after treatment with the antimicrobial compound and a comparison of protein aggregation status upon exposure of two E. coli strains with distinct susceptibility profiles to increasing concentration of the antimicrobial. The described method is inexpensive, fast, and reproducible and can be used to study protein aggregation in the presence of other proteotoxic compounds. In addition, the protocol can be modified to analyze the impact that specific gene deletions have on protein aggregation in a variety of different bacteria.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals/Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>67-64-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30% Acrylamide/Bisacrylamide solution 29:1</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610156</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium persulfate</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>A3678-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzonase nuclease</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>E1014-5KU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bluestain 2 Protein ladder, 5-245 kDa</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>P008-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>M6250-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bromophenol blue</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>B-092-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals LLC</td>
			<td>821616</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Glucose</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>G8270-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-Sucrose</td>
			<td>Acros Organics</td>
			<td>57-50-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>SLBT9686</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial Acetic acid</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>ARK2183-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol, 99%</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G5516-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>G-630-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid, ACS reagent</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>320331-2.5L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol (2-Propanol)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>402893-2.5L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth (Miller)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>L3522-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth with agar (Miller)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>L2897-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>L-040-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x MOPS Buffer</td>
			<td>Teknova</td>
			<td>M2101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nonidet P-40</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>9036-19-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate, dibasic</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P3786-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate, monobasic</td>
			<td>Acros Organics</td>
			<td>7778-77-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L3771-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>T9281-50ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thiamine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T4625-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Trichloroacetic acid</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>T6399-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>T-400-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Material/Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge tubes (15 mL)</td>
			<td>Alkali Scientific</td>
			<td>JABG-1019</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlenmeyer flask (125 mL)</td>
			<td>Carolina</td>
			<td>726686</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlenmeyer flask (500 mL)</td>
			<td>Carolina</td>
			<td>726694</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Freezer: -80 &#176;C</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass beads (0.5 mm)</td>
			<td>BioSpec Products</td>
			<td>1107-9105</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge</td>
			<td>Hermle</td>
			<td>Z216MK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentriguge tubes (1.7 mL)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>87003-294</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentriguge tubes (2.0 mL)</td>
			<td>Axygen Maxiclear Microtubes</td>
			<td>MCT-200-C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic cuvettes</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>14-377-012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power supply</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>EC105</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rocker</td>
			<td>Alkali Scientific</td>
			<td>RS7235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shaking incubator (37 &#176;C)</td>
			<td>Benchmark Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small glass plate</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1653311</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spacer plates (1 mm)</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1653308</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Thermoscientific</td>
			<td>3339053</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tabletop centrifuge for 15 mL centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vertical gel electrophoresis chamber</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1658004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortexer</td>
			<td>Fisher Vortex Genie 2</td>
			<td>12-812</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>Benchmark Scientific</td>
			<td>H5000-HC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 well comb</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1653359</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

extraction and visualization of protein aggregates after treatment of escherichia coli with a proteotoxic stressor

The exposure of living organisms to environmental and cellular stresses often causes disruptions in protein homeostasis and can result in protein aggregation. The accumulation of protein aggregates in bacterial cells can lead to significant alterations in the cellular phenotypic behavior, including a reduction in growth rates, stress resistance, and virulence. Several experimental procedures exist for the examination of these stressor-mediated phenotypes. This paper describes an optimized assay for the extraction and visualization of aggregated and soluble proteins from different Escherichia coli strains after treatment with a silver-ruthenium-containing antimicrobial. This compound is known to generate reactive oxygen species and causes widespread protein aggregation. 
The method combines a centrifugation-based separation of protein aggregates and soluble proteins from treated and untreated cells with subsequent separation and visualization by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Coomassie staining. This approach is simple, fast, and allows a qualitative comparison of protein aggregate formation in different E. coli strains. The methodology has a wide range of applications, including the possibility to investigate the impact of other proteotoxic antimicrobials on in vivo protein aggregation in a wide range of bacteria. Moreover, the protocol can be used to identify genes that contribute to increased resistance to proteotoxic substances. Gel bands can be used for the subsequent identification of proteins that are particularly prone to aggregation.

<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62628/62628fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Representative results of antimicrobial-induced protein aggregation in commensal Escherichia coli strain MG1655 and UPEC strain CFT073. E. coli strains MG1655 and CFT073 were grown at 37 &#176;C and 300 rpm to OD600= 0.5-0.55 in MOPS-g media before they were treated with the indicated concentrations (-, 0 mg/mL; +, ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Extraction and Visualization of Protein Aggregates after Treatment of Escherichia coli with a Proteotoxic Stressor at JoVE.com

Extraction and Visualization of Protein Aggregates after Treatment of Escherichia coli with a Proteotoxic Stressor

This protocol describes the extraction and visualization of aggregated and soluble proteins from Escherichia coli after treatment with a proteotoxic antimicrobial. Following this procedure allows a qualitative comparison of protein aggregate formation in vivo in different bacterial strains and/or between treatments.

Extraction and Visualization of Protein Aggregates after Treatment of Escherichia coli with a Proteotoxic Stressor

The exposure of living organisms to environmental and cellular stresses often causes disruptions in protein homeostasis and can result in protein ...

Exposure to stress can cause protein aggregation and result in significant alterations in the phenotypic behavior of bacteria. The procedure described in this video allows the extraction and visualization of protein aggregates after stress treatment. In contrast to other published procedures, this protocol requires lower cell numbers and abstains from complicated physical disruption processes, as well as time-consuming washing and incubation steps.This protocol can be used to study protein aggregation in a wide variety of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. You can also analyze the effect of gene deletions or compare the efficacy of proteotoxic compounds. Begin by inoculating a single colony of E.coli strain MG1655 and uropathogenic E.coli strain CFT073, each into five milliliters of lysogeny broth, or LB, medium.Incubate the two broth cultures at 37 degrees Celsius and 300 rpm for 14 to 16 hours. Dilute each strain to an optical density at 600 nanometers, or OD600, of 0.1 into a 500-milliliter flask containing 70 milliliters of MOPS-g medium. Incubate the flasks at 37 degrees and 300 rpm until the mid-log phase is reached.After incubation, transfer 20 milliliters of each culture into three pre-warmed 125-milliliter flasks, and incubate them at 37 degrees Celsius and 300 rpm for two minutes. Prepare a two-milligram-per-milliliter antimicrobial compound solution in MOPS-g medium. Add this solution to each culture to reach the desired concentrations, and add the required volume of MOPS-g medium for the untreated control.Determine the OD600 of each culture after 45 minutes of stress treatment. For each sample, aliquot four milliliters of culture with an OD600 of one into 15-milliliter centrifuge tubes. Resuspend the cell pellets in 50 microliters of ice-cold lysis buffer.Incubate the samples for 30 minutes on ice. Add 360 microliters of ice-cold buffer A to the samples, and gently mix by pipetting. Transfer the samples into two-milliliter microcentrifuge tubes with around 200 microliters of 0.5-millimeter glass beads.Incubate the tubes for 30 minutes at eight degrees Celsius in a ThermoMixer with shaking at 1400 rpm. Incubate the tubes on ice for five minutes without shaking to settle the glass beads. Then transfer 200 microliters of the cell lysate into 1.7-milliliter microcentrifuge tubes.Centrifuge the cell lysate for 20 minutes at 16, 000 times g and four degrees Celsius. Collect the supernatant, which will be used as the soluble protein sample later. Use a pipette to resuspend the pellet in 200 microliters of ice-cold buffer A.Centrifuge of the tubes at 16, 000 times g and four degrees Celsius for 20 minutes.Then carefully remove the supernatant altogether. Use a pipette to carefully resuspend the pellet in 200 microliters of ice-cold buffer B.Centrifuge the tubes again, and carefully remove the supernatant. Then repeat the wash with buffer A.Resuspend the pellet in 100 microliters of 1x reducing SDS sample buffer, and boil it for five minutes in a ThermoMixer at 95 degrees Celsius.Mix one volume of 100%TCA with four volumes of the soluble protein sample collected earlier, and incubate for 10 minutes at four degrees Celsius for protein precipitation. Centrifuge the sample at 21, 000 times g and four degrees Celsius for five minutes to obtain the precipitate, and remove the supernatant. Use 200 microliters of ice-cold acetone to wash the pellet, to remove cellular debris.Centrifuge the sample again to obtain the precipitate, and remove the supernatant. To remove the remaining acetone from the pellets, keep the microcentrifuge tubes in the ThermoMixer at 37 degrees Celsius with their lids open. Then add 100 microliters of 1x reducing SDS buffer to completely dissolve the pellet, and boil the sample at 95 degrees Celsius for five minutes.Immediately load the sample on an SDS polyacrylamide gel for separation, or store the sample at minus 20 degrees Celsius to proceed later. Prepare two separating gels as described in the text manuscript. Pour the gel between the glass plates using a one-milliliter pipette, ensuring that the upper two centimeters are free of the mixture.Add 70%ethanol on top of the separating gel, creating an even interface between the two layers. Once the separating gels have polymerized, prepare the stacking gels using instructions in the text manuscript. Then remove the ethanol from the separating gels, and add the stacking gel solution.Carefully insert a comb with the desired number of pockets without introducing air bubbles, and allow the gel to polymerize for 20 to 30 minutes. Load four microliters of each sample, as well as the protein ladder, into separate wells. Then run the gel in tris-glycine running buffer at 144 volts for 45 minutes at room temperature.Use pre-warmed Fairbanks solution A to stain the gels on a rocker for 30 minutes and pre-warmed Fairbanks solution D to de-color the gels on a rocker until the desired background is achieved. An increase was observed in the amount of protein aggregate formed when cells were treated with 175 micrograms per milliliter and 200 micrograms per milliliter of the antimicrobial, as compared to untreated cells. The increase in the insoluble protein fraction was more pronounced in the more sensitive MG1655 strain.A decrease was observed in the amount of soluble proteins when cells were treated with 175 micrograms per milliliter and 200 micrograms per milliliter of the antimicrobial, as compared to untreated cells. When attempting this protocol, keep in mind that normalization to the optical density at 600 nanometers is important for comparison of the extent of protein aggregation in the samples.

extraction-visualization-protein-aggregates-after-treatment

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

3.3K visualizações.  Illinois State University. A exposição ao estresse pode causar agregação de proteínas e resultar em alterações significativas no comportamento fenotípico das bactérias. O procedimento descrito neste vídeo permite a extração e visualização de agregados proteicos após o tratamento do estresse. Em contraste com outros procedimentos publicados, este protocolo exige números de células mais baixos e se abstém de processos complicados de interrupção física, bem como etapas demoradas de lavagem e incubaç?...