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In This Article

  • Summary
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Protocol
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Disclosures
  • Acknowledgements
  • Materials
  • References
  • Reprints and Permissions

Summary

Here, we have used alizarin red staining to show that lead acetate exposure causes a bone mass change in zebrafish larvae. This staining method can be adapted to the investigation of bone loss in zebrafish larvae loss induced by other hazardous toxicants.

Abstract

Chemically induced bone loss due to lead (Pb) exposure could trigger an array of adverse impacts on both human and animal skeletal systems. However, the specific effects and mechanisms in zebrafish remain unclear. Alizarin red has a high affinity for calcium ions and can help visualize the bone and illustrate skeletal mineral mass. In this study, we aimed to detect lead acetate (PbAc)-induced bone loss in zebrafish larvae by using alizarin red staining. Zebrafish embryos were treated with a series of PbAc concentrations (0, 5, 10, 20 mg/L) between 2 and 120 h post fertilization. Whole-mount skeletal staining was conducted on larvae at 9 days post fertilization, and the total stained area was quantified using ImageJ software. The results indicated that the mineralized tissues were stained in red, and the stained area decreased significantly in the PbAc-exposure group, with a dose-dependent change in bone mineralization. This paper presents a staining protocol for investigating skeletal changes in PbAc-induced bone defects. The method can also be used in zebrafish larvae for the detection of bone loss induced by other chemicals.

Introduction

Recent studies have confirmed that osteoporosis due to glucocorticoids, aromatase inhibitors, and excessive alcohol consumption is common1,2. Lead (Pb) is a toxic metal found in plants, soil, and aquatic environments3. Although the adverse effects of Pb on the human body have attracted much attention, its irreversible impact on bone needs to be investigated further. Lead intoxication causes a diverse array of pathological changes in both the developing and adult skeleton, affecting normal life activities. Studies have found an association between chronic Pb exposure and bone damage4, including impaired bone structures5,6, reduced bone mineral density, and even increased risk of osteoporosis7.

Mineralized tissue is of great importance to bone strength8, and bone mineralization matrix deposition is a critical index of bone formation9. Alizarin red has a high affinity for calcium ions, and alizarin red staining is a standard procedure for assessing bone formation10. According to this method, mineralized tissue is stained red, while all other tissue remains transparent. The stained area is then quantified by digital image analysis11.

Zebrafish is an important model organism widely used in drug discovery and disease models. Genetic studies in zebrafish and humans have demonstrated similarities in the underlying mechanisms of skeletal morphogenesis at the molecular level12. Moreover, high-throughput drug or biomolecule screening is more feasible in large clutches of zebrafish than murine models, facilitating the mechanistic study of proosteogenic or osteotoxic molecules13. Differential staining of the skeleton in toto10 is frequently used in studying skeletal dysplasia in small vertebrates and mammalian fetuses. Alizarin red staining was performed to investigate the bone developmental toxicity of chemicals in zebrafish larvae. Herein, we used lead as an example to describe a protocol for detecting lead acetate-induced bone defects in zebrafish larvae.

Protocol

All animal procedures outlined here have been reviewed and approved by the Animal Care Institute of The Ethics Committee of Soochow University.

1. Fish husbandry and embryo collection 14

  1. Feed fish three times every day; ensure the zebrafish are maintained at 28.5 ± 0.5 °C with a 14:10 h light/dark cycle.
  2. Separate the male and female adult fish by isolation boards in spawning tanks at a 2:1 male to female ratio in the evening.
  3. The next morning, remove the isolation boards at 9:00 AM and collect the embryos 2 h later.
  4. Place the embryos in a biochemical incubator maintained at 28.5 °C before the experiment.

2. Chemical exposure

  1. Prepare the mother stock: weigh lead acetate trihydrate (5 g), and dissolve it in ultrapure water (50 mL) with stirring.
    CAUTION: PbAc is toxic. Wear suitable dust masks, protective clothing, and gloves. Perform the experiment under a fume hood.
  2. Select and randomly distribute zebrafish embryos into clean 6-well plates (30 embryos per well in 3 mL of zebrafish breeding water; see Table 1 for its composition). Treat the embryos with PbAc (0, 5, 10, 20 mg/L) from 2 to 120 h post fertilization (hpf).
    NOTE: The concentrations of PbAc were chosen according to the dose-range-finding experiments. The results showed that the LC50 of lead acetate on zebrafish embryos was 41.044 mg/L at 120 hpf. Hence, the highest concentration was set to half of the LC50 and a series of solutions prepared by 2-fold dilution.
  3. Feed the larvae twice a day from 5 days post fertilization (dpf). Maintain the zebrafish embryos at 28.5 ± 0.5 °C with a 14:10 h light/dark cycle.
  4. Refresh the Pb-free medium (zebrafish breeding water) every 24 h until 9 dpf.
    ​NOTE: Upon completion of the experiments, all lead-containing solutions were poured into a designated liquid tank and treated by the experiment management center.

3. Alizarin red staining

NOTE: Wear suitable dust masks, protective clothing, and gloves during the entire staining process. The compositions of all solutions are shown in Table 1.

  1. Specific staining steps
    NOTE: The dyeing process was carried out in a 24-well plate at room temperature. After each solution was added, place the 24-well plate on the shaking table set at a low speed.
    1. Remove 10 zebrafish larvae randomly from each group at 9 dpf and fix the fish in 1 mL of 2% paraformaldehyde/1x phosphate-buffered saline for 2 h.
    2. Decant the solution and wash the zebrafish larvae with 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5)/10 mM MgCl2 for 10 min.
    3. Decant the solution and incubate the larvae in the following solutions for 5 min each for destaining: anhydrous ethanol (EtOH) solution (80% EtOH/100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5)/10 mM MgCl2, 50% EtOH/100 mM Tris-HCl (pH=7.5), and 25% EtOH/100mM Tris-HCl (pH=7.5).
    4. Decant the solution, remove the pigment by bleaching with a solution consisting of 3% H2O2 and 0.5% KOH, and observe once every 10 min until the pigment is completely removed.
    5. Rinse the zebrafish larvae several times with 25% glycerin/0.1% KOH for 10 min each until there are no bubbles.
      NOTE: It is important to avoid bubbles; otherwise, the bubbles in the zebrafish body will appear as a black field of view under the microscope, which will affect observations and quantitative analysis.
    6. Stain the larvae by soaking in 1 mL of 0.01% alizarin for 50 min.
    7. Decant the solution and add 1mL of 50% glycerin/0.1% KOH for 10 min to clear the background. Store the fishes in fresh 50% glycerin/0.1% KOH for subsequent observation.

4. Image acquisition

  1. Transfer one larva onto the glass slide each time, keeping the larva in the middle of the liquid drop.
  2. Observe the larvae under a stereo microscope.
  3. Turn on the camera, open the software (see the Table of Materials), and keep the default settings.
  4. Click on AE, and choose an appropriate exposure time (60 ms in this experiment) to obtain the best image.
  5. Capture all the images under the same settings. Save the images in .tif format for later analysis.

5. Image analysis

NOTE: See the Supplemental file for an example with a set of sample graphs for image analysis.

  1. Double-click the ImageJ icon and analyze the images saved in step 4.5.
    1. Click on File | Open to open the images saved in step 4.5.
    2. Click on Image | Type, select 8-bit.
    3. Click on Edit | Invert.
    4. Click on Analyze | Calibrate, select Uncalibrated OD in the popup interface, check Global calibration at the bottom left of the lower interface, and click OK.
    5. Click on Analyze | Set Scale | Click to Remove scale in the popup interface, check Global below, and click OK.
    6. Click on Analyze | Set Measurements, select the item area in the popup interface, check the Limit to threshold below (to measure only the selected range), and click OK.
    7. Click on Image | Adjust| Threshold, slide the slider in the middle of the popup interface to select the appropriate threshold (change the threshold for each image) so that all targets to be tested in one image are selected, and click Set.
    8. Click on Analyze | Measure. Record the dates of each group.
  2. Use one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test to analyze the differences, and set the significance level at p < 0.001 (***).

Results

Alizarin red staining is a sensitive and specific method for measuring changes in bone mineralization in zebrafish larvae. In this study, we have observed that PbAc had adverse effects on zebrafish larvae, including death, malformation, decreased heart rate, and body length shortening. Moreover, the mineral skeleton areas of zebrafish larvae were evaluated to examine PbAc-induced bone loss. At 9 dpf (Figure 1A), many bones of the head skeleton are mineralized and hence stained in red, such a...

Discussion

The zebrafish is a suitable model for studying bone metabolic disease. Compared to rodent models, zebrafish models are relatively fast to establish, and measurement of the severity of disease is easier. In wild-type zebrafish larvae, mineralization of the head skeleton occurs at 5 dpf and the axial skeleton at 7 dpf15. Thus, cranial bones such as PS, OP, CB, and NC are well developed at 9 dpf. After the larvae were completely destained and bleached, the soft tissues were cleared, resulting in a tr...

Disclosures

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81872646; 81811540034; 81573173) and the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD).

Materials

NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
1 M Tris-HCl (pH=7.5)Solarbio,Beijing,China21for detaining
4% Paraformaldehyde Fix SolutionBBI,Shanghai,China14fixing tissues
10x PBS bufferBBI,Shanghai,China15for fixing
35% H2O2Yonghua,Jiangsu,China8removing pigment
50 mL Centrifuge tubeAKX,Jiangsu,China4
95% Anhydrous ethanolEnox,Jiangsu,China2destaining
Alizarin red (Purity 99.5%)Solarbio,Beijing,China1staining
Biochemical incubatorYiheng,Shanghai,China3raising zebrafish embryos
Electronic scaleSartorius,Germany5weighing the solid raw materials
Glycerin (Purity 99.5%)BBI,Shanghai,China7storing the stained fish
ImageJ (software)USA9digital analysis
KOH (Purity 99.9%)Sigma,America10bleaching solution
Lead acetate trihydrate (Purity 99.5%)Aladdin,Shanghai,China11
MgCl2 (Purity 99.9%)Aladdin,Shanghai,China12cleaning solution
NIS-Elements F (software)Nikon, Japan13observing and taking photos
PipeAKX, Jiangsu, China18removal of embryos and solution
plates (24-well)Corning,America17container for staining embryos
plates (6-well)Corning,America16container for breeding embryos
Shaking tableBeyotime, China19mixing the solution
Stereo microscopeNikon,Japan20observing and taking photos
ZebrafishZebrafish Experiment Center of Soochow University,Suzhou,China22experimental animal

References

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  2. Rachner, T. D., Gobel, A., Jaschke, N. P., Hofbauer, L. C. Challenges in preventing bone loss induced by aromatase inhibitors. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 105 (10), (2020).
  3. Kataba, A., et al. Acute exposure to environmentally relevant lead levels induces oxidative stress and neurobehavioral alterations in larval zebrafish (Danio rerio). Aquatic Toxicology. 227, 105607 (2020).
  4. Morin, S. N., et al. Differences in fracture prevalence and in bone mineral density between Chinese and White Canadians: the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study (CaMos). Archives of Osteoporosis. 15 (1), 147 (2020).
  5. Lee, C. M., et al. Chronic lead poisoning magnifies bone detrimental effects in an ovariectomized rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Experimental Toxicologic Pathology. 68 (1), 47-53 (2016).
  6. Theppeang, K., et al. Associations of bone mineral density and lead levels in blood, tibia, and patella in urban-dwelling women. Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (6), 784-790 (2008).
  7. Sun, Y., et al. Osteoporosis in a Chinese population due to occupational exposure to lead. American Journal Industrial Medicine. 51 (6), 436-442 (2008).
  8. Guadalupe-Grau, A., Fuentes, T., Guerra, B., Calbet, J. A. L. Exercise and bone mass in adults. Sports Medicine. 39 (6), 439-468 (2009).
  9. Ottani, V., Raspanti, M., Ruggeri, A. Collagen structure and functional implications. Micron. 32 (3), 251-260 (2001).
  10. Kelly, W. L., Bryden, M. M. A modified differential stain for cartilage and bone in whole mount preparations of mammalian fetuses and small vertebrates. Stain Technology. 58 (3), 131-134 (1983).
  11. Barrett, R., Chappell, C., Quick, M., Fleming, A. A rapid, high content, in vivo model of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Biotechnology Journal. 1 (6), 651-655 (2006).
  12. Howe, K., et al. The zebrafish reference genome sequence and its relationship to the human genome. Nature. 496 (7446), 498-503 (2013).
  13. Fernandez, I., Gavaia, P. J., Laize, V., Cancela, M. L. Fish as a model to assess chemical toxicity in bone. Aquatic Toxicology. 194, 208-226 (2018).
  14. Wang, L., et al. Role of GH/IGF axis in arsenite-induced developmental toxicity in zebrafish embryos. Ecotoxicology Environmental Safety. 201, 110820 (2020).
  15. Bergen, D. J. M., Kague, E., Hammond, C. L. Zebrafish as an emerging model for osteoporosis: a primary testing platform for screening new osteo-active compounds. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 10, 6 (2019).
  16. Charles, J. F., et al. Utility of quantitative micro-computed tomographic analysis in zebrafish to define gene function during skeletogenesis. Bone. 101, 162-171 (2017).
  17. Hammond, C. L., Moro, E. Using transgenic reporters to visualize bone and cartilage signaling during development in vivo. Frontiers in Endocrinology. 3, 91 (2012).
  18. Bensimon-Brito, A., et al. Revisiting in vivo staining with alizarin red S--a valuable approach to analyse zebrafish skeletal mineralization during development and regeneration. BMC Developmental Biology. 16, 2 (2016).

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