This work was supported by grants from the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers Association of America (PhRMA) Foundation (to B. Gulbransen), National Institutes of Health (Building Interdisciplinary Research Careers in Women&#8217;s Health) grant K12 HD065879 (B. Gulbransen) and start-up funds from Michigan State University (B. Gulbransen).

NOT: Laboratuvar hayvanlarında doku içeren aşağıdaki prosedürler Hayvanlar 2013 Ötenazi için AVMA Rehberi ile tutarlı ve Michigan State Üniversitesi IACUC tarafından önceden kabul edildi. 1. Doku Hazırlanması <ol><li> Oksijen ya da bir fiziksel bariyer izofluran ile doğrudan temas hayvanları engeller sağlanması, bölmenin tabanında bir emici malzemenin üzerine sıvı izofluran 3-5 ml yerleştirerek% 2.5 izofluran içeren bir hücre araştırma hayvan anestezisi. Kapkaççı sıkıştırarak anestezi derinliği için test. NOT: arka bacak hiçbir geri çekilme refleksi olduğunda anestezi derinliği uygun görülmüştür. Uygun anestezi sonra, servikal dislokasyon ile fare euthanize </li><li> Bir yatar pozisyonda hayvan yerleştirin ve% 70 etanol ile karın cildi temizleyin. Orta hatta karın cildi çimdik forseps kullanın ve 6 cm ortamı yapmak için cerrahi makas kullanınlinea alba boyunca l kesi iç sindirim organları ortaya çıkarmak. </li><li> Bulmak ve periton içine ileum maruz künt forseps kullanın. Makasla İleal / kolon mezentere kesin ve bağırsak çözülüyor başlar. </li><li> Bağırsak uzunluğu yeterli sökülmüş sonra, bir ileum hazırlanması için çekum mide ve proksimal barsak distalinden kesti. Büyük bir bağırsak hazırlığı için, rektum çekum ve proksimal kolon distaline kesti. </li><li> Hızlı bir şekilde bağırsak segmenti çıkarın ve 3 uM nikardipin hidroklorür ve 1 uM skopolamin hidroklorür ile desteklenmiş DMEM / F12 ortamı ile bir çanak içinde yerleştirmek buz üzerinde (bundan sonra &quot;ortam&quot; olarak adlandırılacaktır). Bu inhibitörlerinin eklenmesi bağırsak düz kas felç mikrodiseksiyon ve sonraki görüntüleme kolaylaştırır. </li><li> Kurulan anatomik belirteçler dayalı faiz Kes segmenti (örneğin, jejunum, ileum, uzak veya yakın kolon). Tipik haliyle utilizDistal ileum veya distal kolonda e dokusu. Ancak, tüm bağırsak bölgelerinde, yük ve görüntü myenterik nöronlar ve glia izole etmek için aynı temel yordamı kullanın. </li><li> Soğutulmuş medya ile dolu bir Sylgard kaplı petri istenen bağırsak segmenti ve yerin küçük bir bölümünü (4-6 cm) sökün. </li><li> Proksimal ve böcek pimleri ile barsak segmentinin distal uçlarını Güvenli ve düz yaparak bağırsak tüp açın, uzunlamasına mezenterik sınırı boyunca kesilir. </li><li> Ince forseps (# 5 ve # en 5/45 çalışma) ve çok ince yaylı makas kullanılarak mukozal tabaka uzak teşrih yukarı ve dikkatle mukoza tarafı ile hafif gerilim altında düz pin dokusu. NOT: eğer düzgün yapılmazsa mukoza çıkarılması ENS için oldukça travmatik olabilir. Kaliteli hazırlıkları için, soyulma veya kazıyarak mukozasında ani kaldırılmasını sınırlamak için özen gösterin. En iyi uygulama mukozayı kaldırın ve ince makas ile altında kesmektir. </li><li> Daha küçük preparat haline doku kesips görüntüleme yemekleri içine (yaklaşık 0.5 cm 2) ve pin taze medya ile buz üzerinde yerleştirilen (dairesel kas tabakası yukarı bakacak şekilde 4 köşe). </li><li> Dikkatle myenterik pleksusu maruz ince cımbız ile ayrı alay dairesel kas uzak teşrih. Aşırı germe kaçının. </li><li> Taze medya ile buz ve değişim çözeltisi geri görüntüleme çanak yerleştirin. </li><li> Tabağı başına enzim karışımı 2 ml hazırlanması [Dispase 1 U / ml (4.48 mg / 8 mi), kollajenaz tip II, 150 U / ml (5.45 mg / 8 mi) ortam içinde]. </li><li> Buz yemekleri çıkarın ve adım 1.13 enzim karışımı ekleyin. </li><li> % 5 CO 2/95% hava ile 15 dakika boyunca oda sıcaklığında yemekler inkübe edin. </li><li> Medya 3 kez ve yeniden-pin köşeleri ile yıkayın doku preparatları. </li></ol> 2. Yükleme Fluo-4 Boya NOT: Gösterge boya ile yüklenen floresan boyalar ve doku tutarken sınırlı ışık ile çalışarak photobleaching kaçının. <ol><li> 4 mcM Fluo-4 yükleme çözeltisi hazırlayın. <ol><li> 4 mM Fluo-4 stokunun 1.5 ul kana 1.5 ml medya ve 250 mM probenesid stokunun 1.2 ul ekleyin. Flu-4, GM 50 ug (% 0.25 kremafor-EL ile takviye edilmiş DMSO içinde% 20), 4 mM Fluo-4 hazır pluronik F-127, 11.4 ul ilave edilerek hazırlanır. </li></ol></li><li> 37 ° C de karanlık bir kuluçka makinesi içinde, 45 dakika boyunca Fluo-4 yükleme çözeltisi içinde preparatlarıyla inkübe edin. </li><li> Inkübatör çıkarın ve medya ile 3 kez hazırlıkları yıkayın. </li><li> Medya, 200 mcM probenesit içeren ve görüntüleme önce 37 ° C&#39;de 15 dakika inkübe Exchange ortamı. Not: Probenesid nöronlarda çoklu ilaç direnci taşıyıcıları önleyen bir ilaçtır. Bu ilaç eklenmesi boyalar ekstrüde etmek nöronların yetisini baskılayan ve nöronal etiketleme artırır. Probenesid yokluğunda Ca 2 + göstergesi boyaların Toplu yükleme ağırlıklı glial hücre yükleme üretir. probenesid eklenmesi nöronal ve glial tepkilerin görselleştirme sağlar. </li><li> Hazırlayın Kre Modifiyebs tampon. <ol><li> Yap bileşenlerin (mM olarak) son konsantrasyonlar olarak takip olduğu tadil edilmiş bir Krebs tamponu,: 121 NaCl, 5.9 KCl, 2.5 CaCl2, 1.2 MgCl2, 1.2 NaH 2 PO 4, 10 HEPES, 21.2 NaHCO 3, 1 piruvik asit ve (NaOH ile 7.4&#39;e ayarlanmış, pH) 8 glikoz ihtiva eder. Ca sırasında 2+ görüntüleme kas kasılmaları inhibe 3 mcM nikardipini ve 1 mcM skopolamin ekleyin ve diseksiyonu tüm montaj. </li></ol></li></ol> 3. Görüntüleme ve Analiz NOT: Bir floresan ışık kaynağı, mikroskop, kaliteli bir CCD kamera ve uygun satın alma yazılımı ile en az bir temel görüntüleme teçhizat kullanın. Işık kaynağı ve özel uygulamaya bağlı olarak diğer bileşenlerin ilave edilmesini değişir. Bir filtre tekerleği ve deklanşör geleneksel xenon ark ışık kaynağı ile kullanılması gerekir. Ancak, LED ışık kaynakları ve aydınlatma sistemleri bu bileşenleri gerekmez. <ol><li> Rec yerleştirinmikroskop altında bölmeyi ording ve birden fazla ısıtılmış şırınga rezervuarlı bir yerçekimi akışlı perfüzyon sistemi kullanılarak 37 ° C Krebs tampon 2-3 ml / dak sürekli perfüzyon oranı oluşturmaktadır. Bir vakum tuzak bağlı her iki giriş ve emme hattında hava kabarcığı oluşumunu önlemek için emin olun. </li><li> Parlak bir alan aydınlatma altında odak noktası haline istenen pleksusunu getirin. Fotoğraf beyazlatma yol açabilir doku, ışığa maruz kalmaması. </li><li> Ganglionlar içinde Fluo-4 yükleme inceleyin ve görüntüleme için sağlıklı ganglionlar seçin. Sağlıksız / hasarlı ganglion otofloresan veya noktalı morfolojisi sergiler ve görüntüleme için kullanılmamalıdır. </li><li> Ganglion seçildikten sonra, kameraya ışık yolu yönlendirmek ve görüntü elde etme yazılımı ile canlı görüntü elde. Bu ganglion odak ve set görüntü alma hızı ve pozlama süreleri olduğundan emin olun. NOT: Görüntü elde etme oranları ve süreleri araştırmacılar kaydetmek istediğiniz olaylara bağlı olarak değişecektir. En deneyleri, görüntüler içinglial Ca 2+ cevapları Ca nöronlarda 2+ transientler gibi hızlı değildir çünkü geleneksel nöronlar için 2-10 Hz glial hücreler için 0.5-1 Hz ve yukarı elde edilir. </li><li> Denemeyi başlayın ve 30 saniye için temel aktivite kurmak. </li><li> Örneğin 2-3 ml / dakika bir oranda yerçekimi akışlı perfüzyon sistemi kullanılarak reseptör agonistleri ve antagonistleri olarak yararlı önceden ısıtılmış ilaçlar uygulanır. Normal tampon bir perfüzyon dönerek agonistleri / antagonistleri uygulanmasını takip ve en az 10 dakikalık bir yıkama / iyileşme süresi sağlar. NOT: İlaç uygulama süreleri bireysel bileşik ve deneysel tasarım bağlı olarak değişecektir. Genel olarak, agonist bir 20-30 saniye uygulama nöron ve glial hücrelerdeki G-proteinine bağlı reseptörlerin aktive etmek için yeterlidir. Bununla birlikte, (örneğin, nikotinik asetilkolin reseptörleri gibi) ligand-kapılı iyon kanallarının en fazla 5-10 saniye uygulama süresi gerektirirler. Daha fazla süre maruz kalma ligand kapılı iyon kanalları hızla dese neden olurnsitize. Antagonistler reseptör yollarının tam blokajını sağlamak için yaklaşık 3-15 dakika boyunca uygulanır. Ancak, bu bir brüt genellemedir ve araştırmacılar her zaman kendi özel paradigmada herhangi bir deneysel ilaç optimize edilmelidir. </li><li> Deney kayıt ve görünümü time-lapse film durdurun. Uygun görüntü analiz yazılımı kullanarak ilgi dikkatlice seçin bölgeleri (ROI). </li><li> Normalleştirmek ve ilk başlangıç ​​floresan değeri karşı ROI floresan yoğunluğu karşılaştırmak için yazılımı kullanın. Normalize floresanstaki değişimler, [Ca + 2] &#39;de değişiklikler ile doğrudan orantılıdır. <ol><li> YG - kadar taşınmış / K = (F 0) / K 0 (F 1) - kullanılarak daha önce 26 tarif edilen bir yöntemin değiştirilmesine kullanarak ((F 1 - K 0) / F 0) F1 floresan herhangi bir olan arka plan noktası ve F0 değerlendirme doğruluğunu geliştirmek için, temel floresan olduğunu. Bu değişiklik, yardımcı maddelermyenterik pleksusu yatan kas tabakasının hareketi sergileyen doku hazırlıkları floresan değişiklikleri gürültü azaltılmasında. </li></ol></li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The methodologies described in this manuscript provide a consistent approach to effectively study neurons and enteric glia in the ENS. Although imaging neurons and enteric glia in culture has yielded a wealth of insight into the function of individual cells, studying these cells in their native, multi-cellular environment is crucial for our understanding their physiology and pathophysiology. Fluorescence microscopy is a crucial technique for assessing multidirectional interactions of cells in the ENS. Loading cells of the ENS with selective fluorescent markers and image acquisition with high-resolution microscopy permits quantitative observations of cellular activity in the ENS. Imaging live tissue samples of the ENS is performed relatively quickly and generates large amounts of in-depth functional and spatial data. Mouse myenteric and submucosal plexus preparations used in these experiments allow for molecular and genetic manipulation approaches. Ca2+ imaging in whole-mount preparations provides a useful tool for the assessment of neuron-glia interactions.
In advanced experimental paradigms, several probes can be combined to obtain information about different events within the cells. Fluorescence microscopy can record images with enhanced contrast of specific molecules, if an appropriate fluorescent label is used. Fluo-4 was chosen because it possesses a large dynamic range. Sufficient incubation time is vital when using the AM dyes in ENS. Dye concentration and loading method may need to be adjusted to achieve best results. Ideal preparations should be loaded with sufficient dye to visualize changes in fluorescence but not so much so that the dye chelates the target ions and interferes with intracellular signaling. Exposure to fluorescent light should be limited to prevent phototoxicity in cells and photobleaching of dyes. 
Investigators must be careful with several steps of this experiment, especially solution and tissue preparation. Particular care has to be taken during processing and dissection of ENS tissue in order to maintain cellular functions. The GI tract contains several layers and tissue varieties, which pose challenges for dissection and imaging quality in these whole-mount preparations 27. Furthermore, the interconnecting fiber tracts of the MP are wider and ganglia are larger than those of the SMP 2. The neuronal density of the myenteric plexus is higher compared to that of the submucosal plexus 28. Slow and imprecise dissections will have detrimental effects on the quality of the plexus preparations and thus the overall success of the experiments. Therefore, clean/undamaged tools, practice and manual dexterity are critical to this procedure. 
In whole-mount tissue preparations, careful consideration should be taken when drawing the regions of interest (ROI) to correctly assess the kinetics and degree of observed change in fluorescence intensity of the desired cell type. As the ganglia are located on a contractile muscle layer, motion artifacts caused by gut motility are a primary concern during in situ imaging. Thus, suppressing these motion disturbances through re-pinning tissue preparations after incubation with enzymes and the addition of pharmacological inhibition (nicardipine/scopolamine) to buffers permits clear and reliable image acquisition. Aside from pharmacology and mechanical approaches to prevent tissue movement, recent studies illustrate the application of advanced software methodologies and cell type response characteristics to correct for residual tissue movement in the recordings and improve the accuracy of analysis 29. Barring these technical hurdles, this method provides physiologically relevant conditions to assess morphologic and quantitative characteristics of neurons and enteric glia in the ENS.

enterik sinir sistemi (ENS) sindirim yolu 1 duvarında gömülü iki ganglionated pleksuslar halinde düzenlenmiştir. Bu kas sinir devreleri, myenterik pleksus (MP) ve submukozal pleksus (SMP), nöronlar ve glia enterik (Şekil 1) 2 oluşur. MP ve SMP gibi bağırsak motilite ve epitel emilimi ve sekresyon, sırasıyla 3 gastrointestinal (Gİ) fonksiyonlarını düzenler. Enterik glia ganglionlar içinde nöronlar ama enterik glia nüfusa yakın bulunan, aynı zamanda lif yolları ve bağırsak duvarının 3,4 ekstra-ganglion bölümlerini birbirine içinde var. Enterik glia başlangıçta nöronların sadece besleyici destek sağlamak için inanılırdı. Ancak son çalışmalar kuvvetle ENS 5,6 fonksiyonları için nöron-glia etkileşimleri önemli olduğunu göstermektedir. Örneğin, veri enterik glia nöronal aktivitenin 7 &quot;dinlemek&quot; olduğunu gösteriyorve nöronal devreler 6,8 modüle oksidatif stres 9 enterik nöronların korunması ve yaralanma 10,11 tepki olarak yeni enterik nöronların üretme yeteneğine sahiptir. Bu teknik inceleme sunulan protokol yerinde hücre içi Ca 2 + görüntüleme kullanarak nöronlar ve glia enterik arasındaki karmaşık etkileşimi incelemek için basit ve sağlam bir yöntem sağlar. Ca2 + uyarılabilir hücrelerde her yerde bulunan bir sinyal molekülü olan ve sinir sistemi 12 sinaptik sinyal olaylarını önemli bir rol oynar. Nöronlar veya enterik glia Uyarma ya akını ile Ca 2 + geçirgen kanallar veya Ca ile hücre içi kalsiyum depolarından 2+ salınımını sitoplazmik Ca 2 + konsantrasyonunda bir yükselme ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Görüntüleme Ca floresan boyalar ile nöron ve glia içinde 2+ transientler bir kurulan ve işlevsel organizasyonunu ve dinamiklerini incelemek için yaygın olarak kullanılan tekniktirENS 13-17. Ca 2+ görüntüleme ICC kalp pili ağları 18 ve bağırsak düz kas 19,20 ile uyarılma yayılmasını aydınlatmak için sağlam GI doku bölümleri okuyan önemli bir araç olduğu gösterilmiştir. Bu fizyolojik parametrelerin geniş bir yelpazede soruşturma araştırmacıların sağlayan ve onların uzaysal dağılımı ve zamansal dinamikleri hem de hakkında bilgi sağlar. Hücreler verimli zar-geçirgen floresan göstergeler ve optimize boyama protokolleri 21 ile minimal invaziv bir şekilde lekeli olabilir. Bu, in vivo 23, hem de işlevsel olarak korunmuş preparasyonlar 14-16,22 bir nöron çok sayıda ve enterik glia izlemek için bir fırsat sunmaktadır. Tüm monte doku preparatlar, Ca 2 + bağlandığmda da floresan artar Fluo-4 gibi yüksek afiniteli bir Ca2 + gösterge boyası yüklendi ağırlığa sahiptir. Floresan değişiklikler bir CCD kamera ve Ana tarafından kaydedilirdijital 6 lize. Ca2 + gelişi çeşitli uyaranlara nöron ve glial hücre etkileşimlerini, yanıt izleme olanağı ve gerçek zamanlı olarak mide-bağırsak işlemlerinde, bu hücre tiplerinin katılımını sağladı. İn situ Ca 2+ görüntüleme enterik nöronların ve glia sinyal mekanizmaları büyük fikir vermiştir ve hücre kültürü modelleri 6,24 üzerinde birkaç farklı avantajlara sahiptir. İlk olarak, yerinde hazırlıkları nöronlar ve glia yerli matris ortamını korumak ve sağlam dokuyu hedef bağlantılarının toplu bırakın. İkincisi, genetik ve kültürlü enterik glia morfolojisi önemli ölçüde in vivo 6,24 oranla değişmiş. Üçüncü olarak, birçok heterotipik etkileşimleri birincil hücre kültüründe kaybetti ve hücre-hücre etkileşimleri değerlendiren bu sınırlar vardır. Kültürlü hücreler de temel özelliklerinin incelenmesi, onların usefulne için uygundur rağmenenterik glia ve nöronlar arasındaki karmaşık etkileşimlerin eğitim için ss sınırlıdır. Sinaptik yollar 25 bozulmadan kalır gibi bir yerinde bir yaklaşım kullanarak incelenmesi nöron glia etkileşim daha fizyolojik ilgili olduğunu. Hücre kültürü yaklaşımlar karşılaştırıldığında, in situ yaklaşım bir sistematik nöronlar ve glia enterik arasındaki karmaşık etkileşimlerin anlaşılması için geliştirilmiş koşullar sunmaktadır. Ayrıca, tüm montaj hazırlıkları içinde ganglionated pleksus düzlemsel organizasyonu hücre içi Ca 2 + geçici floresan görüntüleme için idealdir ve bu teknik ENS nöron-glia aktivitesini değerlendirmek için basit bir yaklaşım sağlar.

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in situ ca2+ imaging of the enteric nervous system

Reflex behaviors of the intestine are controlled by the enteric nervous system (ENS). The ENS is an integrative network of neurons and glia in two ganglionated plexuses housed in the gut wall. Enteric neurons and enteric glia are the only cell types within the enteric ganglia. The activity of enteric neurons and glia is responsible for coordinating intestinal functions. This protocol describes methods for observing the activity of neurons and glia within the intact ENS by imaging intracellular calcium (Ca2+) transients with fluorescent indicator dyes. Our technical discussion focuses on methods for Ca2+ imaging in whole-mount preparations of the myenteric plexus from the rodent bowel. Bulk loading of ENS whole-mounts with a high-affinity Ca2+ indicator such as Fluo-4 permits measurements of Ca2+ responses in individual neurons or glial cells. These responses can be evoked repeatedly and reliably, which permits quantitative studies using pharmacological tools. Ca2+ responses in cells of the ENS are recorded using a fluorescence microscope equipped with a cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. Fluorescence measurements obtained using Ca2+ imaging in whole-mount preparations offer a straightforward means of characterizing the mechanisms and potential functional consequences of Ca2+ responses in enteric neurons and glial cells.

Bu tekniğin doğru kullanımı doku hazırlıklarını-montaj, tüm araştırmacılar doğru hücre içi Ca 2+ [Ca 2 +] i enterik nöronların transienti ve glia ölçmek için sağlar. Fare kolon bir myenterik ganglion glia hücresi içinde, bir agonist ile uyandırılmış Ca2 + tepkilerinin bir temsili bir örneği, Video 1 &#39;de gösterilmiştir. Aşağıdaki sonuçlar, bu yöntem kullanılarak elde edilen bazı temsili sonuçlar anlatmak içindir. İlk olarak, Şekil 2, enterik glial ölçen bir deney sonuçlarını göstermektedir [Ca2 +] i kobay kolon uzunlamasına miyenterik pleksus kas (LMMP) preparasyonlar içinde ATP tarafından uyarılmaya yanıt olarak değişir. Özellikle, bu rakam analiz myenterik ganglion ve enterik nöronların yerini gösteren yıldız anahat dahil olmak üzere yukarıda sıralanan deney protokolünde uygun analiz yöntemini gösterir. Ayrıca bu sonuçlar i[Ca 2 +] i kobay olarak myenterik glia seferberlik yüz mikromolar ATP optimal doz llustrate. Bu yanıt enterik glial uyarımı kalibre ve uyaranlara test yanıtları normalleştirmek için kullanılabilir. Sonraki, Şekil 3 düzgün ilgi (ROI) glial hücreler çevredeki bölgeleri seçmek için nasıl elucidates, sarı daireler ülkelerle birlikte gösterilir. Bu sonuçlar aynı zamanda bazal koşullar altında ve farmakolojik uyarıcıya tepki olarak istenen floresan değişimini göstermektedir. Son olarak, Şekil 4, tüm montaj preparasyonlarda [Ca2 +] i yanıtlar için enterik glia ve nöronlar seçmek için uzamsal hususlar gösterilmiştir. <img alt="Şekil 1," src="/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig1highres.jpg" /> ENS Şekil 1. Organizasyon. ENS iki büyük ganglionated plexuslar içerir. miyenterik pleksus l arasında yer almaktadırongitudinal ve dairesel kas katmanları. submukozal pleksus mukoza ve dairesel kas tabakası arasında yer almaktadır. ENS sadece nöronlar ve glia enterik oluşur. Sinir lifi yolları ganglionlar bağlamak. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Bu rakamın büyük halini görmek için lütfen buraya tıklayınız.</a> <img alt="Şekil 2," src="/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig2highres.jpg" /> Kobay kolon myenterik pleksus cevap Şekil 2. Enterik glia yerinde ATP. (A) myenterik ganglion Fluo-4 floresan bazal koşullar altında (kesikli çizgi ile belirtilen). Oklar 100 mmol / L ATP, glial hücreler ile stimülasyon üzerine (B). Kalın interganglionic lif yollarının işaret, ancak nöronlar, hızla artış Fluo-4 [Ca 2+] bir artış gösteren floresan <sub&gt; i. Yanıt hücreler küçük olduğunu unutmayın ve (yıldız ile işaretlenmiş karanlık alanlarda) çok daha büyük nöronlar çevreleyen. (C) Enterik glia 1 mg / L maksimum yanıtları 24 eliciting ile doza bağımlı bir şekilde ATP cevap. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Bir görüntülemek için buraya tıklayınız Bu rakamın büyük versiyonu.</a> <img alt="Şekil 3," src="/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig3highres.jpg" /> Yerinde ATP kolon myenterik pleksus cevap Şekil 3. Murin S-100-GFP + hücreler. (A) S-100-GFP + fare kolon myenterik ganglion glial hücreler (yeşil) (kesikli çizgi ile belirtilen). Çevrede (ROI) ganglionlar içinde glial hücreler çevredeki Altı bölgeleri sarı daireler olarak gösterilmiştir. Oklar ganglion giden kalın lif yolları gösterir. Yıldızlarla d2 enterik nöronların eNote konumu. (B), bazal koşullar altında Rhod-2 floresans aynı gangliyon. (C), 100 umol / L ATP ile stimülasyondan sonra, gliyal hücreler, [Ca2 +] i artmış Rhod- gösterildiği artış ile cevap 2 floresan. (D) A-C&#39;de gösterilen her ROI karşılık gelen izler. (E) D 24 de gösterilen 6 İB&#39;nin yanıtı (SEM ortalama ±) Ortalamalı. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Bu rakamın büyük halini görmek için lütfen buraya tıklayınız.</a> <img alt="Şekil 4," src="/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig4highres.jpg" /> Enterik nöron-to-glia iletişim yerinde görüntülemede Şekil 4.. Ca 2 + görüntüleme deney (A) Temsilcisi görüntüleri (yalancı) nerede tüm montajmyenterik pleksus hazırlanması nöronal P2X7 reseptör agonisti BzATP (100 uM, 30 sn) ile meydan. Nöronal agonisti çevreleyen enterik glial hücreler (A &quot;) önce nöron, (A &#39;)&#39; de Fluo4 floresansta bir artışa neden olduğunu not edin. (B) glia (mavi) ve nöronların zaman boyunca flöresandaki değişim analizi (kırmızı ) normal tampon (katı çizgiler BzATP nöronal agonist BzATP. (C), nöronal veya glial tepkilerinin uygulamasından sonra) ve tampon içinde nöronal P2X7 reseptörleri 13 güçlendirmek için düşük Ca + 2 ve Mg + 2 (kesikli çizgiler) ihtiva etmektedir. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52506/52506fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">edin Bu rakamın büyük halini görmek için buraya tıklayın.</a> Enterik glia Video 1. Agonist-uyarılmış Ca 2+ yanıtıYerinde. Bu video Ca 2+ gösterge boya, Flu-4 ile yüklü fare distal kolonda bir myenterik ganglion gösterir. belirtildiği zaman glial hücre agonisti, ADP, banyoya ilave edilir. ADP Fluo-4 floresan geçici yükselme ile gözlemlediği gibi enterik glia hücre içi Ca artışı 2+ ortaya çıkarır. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52506/JOVE.mp4" target="_blank">Bu videoyu görmek için lütfen buraya tıklayınız.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Situ Ca2+ Imaging of the Enteric Nervous System at JoVE.com

In Situ Ca2+ Imaging of the Enteric Nervous System

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a network of neurons and glia located in the gut wall that controls intestinal reflexes. This protocol describes methods for recording the activity of enteric neurons and glia in live preparations of ENS using Ca2+ imaging.

Enterik Sinir Sistemi Yerinde Ca 2+ Görüntüleme

Reflex behaviors of the intestine are controlled by the enteric nervous system (ENS). The ENS is an integrative network of neurons and glia in two ...

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Neuroscience

In Situ Ca2+ Imaging of the Enteric Nervous System

17.0K Görüntüleme.  Michigan State University. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a network of neurons and glia located in the gut wall that controls intestinal reflexes. This protocol describes methods for recording the activity of enteric neurons and glia in live preparations of ENS using Ca2+ imaging. 

Video: In Situ Ca2+ Imaging of the Enteric Nervous System

Oral Administration of Rotenone using a Gavage and Image Analysis of Alpha-synuclein Inclusions in the Enteric Nervous System

In Parkinson's disease (PD) patients, the associated pathology follows a characteristic pattern involving inter alia the enteric nervous system (ENS) 1,2, the olfactory bulb (OB), the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMV)3, the intermediolateral nucleus of the spinal cord 4 and the substantia nigra, providing the basis for the neuropathological staging of the disease4,5. The ENS and the OB are the most exposed nervous structures and the first ones to be affected. Interestingly, PD has been related to pesticide exposure6-8. Here we show in detail two methods used in our previous study 9. In order to analyze the effects of rotenone acting locally on the ENS, we administered rotenone using a gavage to one-year old C57/BL6 mice. Rotenone is a widely used pesticide that strongly inhibits mitochondrial Complex I 10. It is highly lipophylic and poorly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract 11. Our results showed that the administration of 5 mg/kg of rotenone did not inhibit mitochondrial Complex I activity in the muscle or the brain. Thus, suggesting that using our administration method rotenone did not cross the hepatoportal system and was acting solely on the ENS. Here we show a method to administer pesticides using a gavage and the image analysis protocol used to analyze the effects of the pesticide in alpha-synuclein accumulation in the ENS. The first part shows a method that allows intragastric administration of pesticides (rotenone) at a desired precise concentration. The second method shows a semi-automatic image analysis protocol to analyze alpha-synuclein accumulation in the ENS using an image analysis software.

Parkinson's disease has been related to the exposure to pesticides. Here we show a method to deliver pesticides using a gastric tube at the desired concentration and a method to analyze their effect in alpha-synuclein accumulation in the enteric nervous system.

Enterik Sinir Sistemi Alpha-sinüklein İçermelerin bir sonda ve Görüntü Analizi kullanarak Rotenone Oral İdaresi

In Parkinson's disease (PD) patients, the associated pathology follows a characteristic pattern involving inter alia the enteric nervous system (ENS) 1,2, ...

Nörobilim

Visualization of the Embryonic Nervous System in Whole-mount Drosophila Embryos

The Drosophila embryo is an attractive model system for investigating the cellular and molecular basis of neuronal development. Here we describe the procedure for the visualization of Drosophila embryonic nervous system using antibodies to neuronal proteins. Since the entire embryonic peripheral nervous and central nervous systems are well characterized at the level of individual cells (Dambly-Chaudi&egrave;re et al., 1986; Bodmer et al., 1987; Bodmer et al., 1989), any aberrations to these systems can be easily identified using antibodies to different neuronal proteins. The developing embryos are collected at certain times to ensure that the embryos are in the proper developmental stages for visualization. After collection, the outer layers of the embryo, the chorion membrane and the vitelline envelope that surrounds the embryo, are removed before fixation. Embryos are then incubated with neuronal antibodies and visualized using fluorescently labeled secondary antibodies. Embryos at stages 12-17 are visualized to access the embryonic nervous system. At stage 12 the CNS germ band starts shortening and by stage 15 the definitive pattern of the commissure has been achieved. By stage 17 the CNS contracts and the PNS is fully developed (Campos-Ortega et al. 1985). Thus changes in the pattern of the PNS and CNS can be easily observed during these developmental stages.

Visualization of the Embryonic Nervous System in Whole-mount Drosophila Embryos

We describe the procedure to prepare staged Drosophila embryos for the visualization of the embryonic nervous system during embryogenesis.

Tüm montaj Embriyonik Sinir Sistemi Görselleştirme Drosophila Embriyolar

The Drosophila embryo is an attractive model system for investigating the cellular and molecular basis of neuronal development. Here we describe the ...

Patch-clamp Capacitance Measurements and Ca2+ Imaging at Single Nerve Terminals in Retinal Slices

Visual stimuli are detected and conveyed over a wide dynamic range of light intensities and frequency changes by specialized neurons in the vertebrate retina. Two classes of retinal neurons, photoreceptors and bipolar cells, accomplish this by using ribbon-type active zones, which enable sustained and high-throughput neurotransmitter release over long time periods. ON-type mixed bipolar cell (Mb) terminals in the goldfish retina, which depolarize to light stimuli and receive mixed rod and cone photoreceptor input, are suitable for the study of ribbon-type synapses both due to their large size (~10-12 &mu;m diameter) and to their numerous lateral and reciprocal synaptic connections with amacrine cell dendrites. Direct access to Mb bipolar cell terminals in goldfish retinal slices with the patch-clamp technique allows the measurement of presynaptic Ca2+ currents, membrane capacitance changes, and reciprocal synaptic feedback inhibition mediated by GABAA and GABAC receptors expressed on the terminals. Presynaptic membrane capacitance measurements of exocytosis allow one to study the short-term plasticity of excitatory neurotransmitter release 14,15. In addition, short-term and long-term plasticity of inhibitory neurotransmitter release from amacrine cells can also be investigated by recordings of reciprocal feedback inhibition arriving at the Mb terminal 21. Over short periods of time (e.g. ~10 s), GABAergic reciprocal feedback inhibition from amacrine cells undergoes paired-pulse depression via GABA vesicle pool depletion 11. The synaptic dynamics of retinal microcircuits in the inner plexiform layer of the retina can thus be directly studied.
The brain-slice technique was introduced more than 40 years ago but is still very useful for the investigation of the electrical properties of neurons, both at the single cell soma, single dendrite or axon, and microcircuit synaptic level 19. Tissues that are too small to be glued directly onto the slicing chamber are often first embedded in agar (or placed onto a filter paper) and then sliced 20, 23, 18, 9. In this video, we employ the pre-embedding agar technique using goldfish retina. Some of the giant bipolar cell terminals in our slices of goldfish retina are axotomized (axon-cut) during the slicing procedure. This allows us to isolate single presynaptic nerve terminal inputs, because recording from axotomized terminals excludes the signals from the soma-dendritic compartment. Alternatively, one can also record from intact Mb bipolar cells, by recording from terminals attached to axons that have not been cut during the slicing procedure. Overall, use of this experimental protocol will aid in studies of retinal synaptic physiology, microcircuit functional analysis, and synaptic transmission at ribbon synapses.

Patch-clamp Capacitance Measurements and Ca2+ Imaging at Single Nerve Terminals in Retinal Slices

Here we describe a protocol for the preparation of agar-embedded retinal slices that are suitable for electrophysiology and Ca2+ imaging. This method allows one to study ribbon-type synapses in retinal microcircuits using direct patch-clamp recordings of single presynaptic nerve terminals.

Patch-kelepçe Kapasitans Ölçümler ve Ca 2 + Retina Dilimleri Tek Sinir Terminalleri Görüntüleme

Visual stimuli are detected and conveyed over a wide dynamic range of light intensities and frequency changes by specialized neurons in the vertebrate ...

Multimodal Imaging of Stem Cell Implantation in the Central Nervous System of Mice

During the past decade, stem cell transplantation has gained increasing interest as primary or secondary therapeutic modality for a variety of diseases, both in preclinical and clinical studies. However, to date results regarding functional outcome and/or tissue regeneration following stem cell transplantation are quite diverse. Generally, a clinical benefit is observed without profound understanding of the underlying mechanism(s)1. Therefore, multiple efforts have led to the development of different molecular imaging modalities to monitor stem cell grafting with the ultimate aim to accurately evaluate survival, fate and physiology of grafted stem cells and/or their micro-environment. Changes observed in one or more parameters determined by molecular imaging might be related to the observed clinical effect. In this context, our studies focus on the combined use of bioluminescence imaging (BLI), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histological analysis to evaluate stem cell grafting.
BLI is commonly used to non-invasively perform cell tracking and monitor cell survival in time following transplantation2-7, based on a biochemical reaction where cells expressing the Luciferase-reporter gene are able to emit light following interaction with its substrate (e.g. D-luciferin)8, 9. MRI on the other hand is a non-invasive technique which is clinically applicable10 and can be used to precisely locate cellular grafts with very high resolution11-15, although its sensitivity highly depends on the contrast generated after cell labeling with an MRI contrast agent. Finally, post-mortem histological analysis is the method of choice to validate research results obtained with non-invasive techniques with highest resolution and sensitivity. Moreover end-point histological analysis allows us to perform detailed phenotypic analysis of grafted cells and/or the surrounding tissue, based on the use of fluorescent reporter proteins and/or direct cell labeling with specific antibodies.
In summary, we here visually demonstrate the complementarities of BLI, MRI and histology to unravel different stem cell- and/or environment-associated characteristics following stem cell grafting in the CNS of mice. As an example, bone marrow-derived stromal cells, genetically engineered to express the enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (eGFP) and firefly Luciferase (fLuc), and labeled with blue fluorescent micron-sized iron oxide particles (MPIOs), will be grafted in the CNS of immune-competent mice and outcome will be monitored by BLI, MRI and histology (Figure 1).

This article describes an optimized sequence of events for multimodal imaging of cellular grafts in rodent brain using: (i) in vivo bioluminescence and magnetic resonance imaging, and (ii) post mortem histological analysis. Combining these imaging modalities on a single animal allows cellular graft evaluation with high resolution, sensitivity and specificity.

Fareler ve Merkezi Sinir Sisteminde Kök Hücre İmplantasyonu Multimodal Görüntüleme

During the past decade, stem cell transplantation has gained increasing interest as primary or secondary therapeutic modality for a variety of diseases, ...

Labeling of Single Cells in the Central Nervous System of Drosophila melanogaster

In this article we describe how to individually label neurons in the embryonic CNS of Drosophila melanogaster by juxtacellular injection of the lipophilic fluorescent membrane marker DiI. This method allows the visualization of neuronal cell morphology in great detail. It is possible to label any cell in the CNS: cell bodies of target neurons are visualized under DIC optics or by expression of a fluorescent genetic marker such as GFP. After labeling, the DiI can be transformed into a permanent brown stain by photoconversion to allow visualization of cell morphology with transmitted light and DIC optics. Alternatively, the DiI-labeled cells can be observed directly with confocal microscopy, enabling genetically introduced fluorescent reporter proteins to be colocalised. The technique can be used in any animal, irrespective of genotype, making it possible to analyze mutant phenotypes at single cell resolution.

Labeling of Single Cells in the Central Nervous System of Drosophila melanogaster

We present a technique for labeling single neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) of Drosophila embryos, which allows the analysis of neuronal morphology by either transmitted light or confocal microscopy.

Merkez Sinir Sistemi Tek Hücreler Etiketleme<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

In this  article we describe how to individually label neurons in the embryonic CNS of Drosophila melanogaster by juxtacellular injection of the ...

Direct Intraventricular Delivery of Drugs to the Rodent Central Nervous System

Due to an inability to cross the blood brain barrier, certain drugs need to be directly delivered into the central nervous system (CNS). Our lab focuses specifically on antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), though the techniques shown in the video here can also be used to deliver a plethora of other drugs to the CNS. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have the capability to knockdown sequence-specific targets 1 as well as shift isoform ratios of specific genes 2. To achieve widespread gene knockdown or splicing in the CNS of mice, the ASOs can be delivered into the brain using two separate routes of administration, both of which we demonstrate in the video.
The first uses Alzet osmotic pumps, connected to a catheter that is surgically implanted into the lateral ventricle. This allows the ASOs to be continuously infused into the CNS for a designated period of time. The second involves a single bolus injection of a high concentration of ASO into the right lateral ventricle. Both methods use the mouse cerebral ventricular system to deliver the ASO to the entire brain and spinal cord, though depending on the needs of the study, one method may be preferred over the other.

We describe a method to target drugs to the central nervous system by either implanting a catheter or performing a bolus injection into the right lateral ventricle in mice. We focus specifically on the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides. This technique is readily adaptable to other drugs and to rats.

Kemirgen Merkezi Sinir Sistemi İlaçların doğrudan Intraventriküler teslim

Due to an inability to cross the blood brain barrier, certain drugs need to be directly delivered into the central nervous system (CNS). Our lab focuses ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

Kemirgen Santral Sinir Sistemi vivo optogenetic Stimülasyon içinde

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to blindness in many retinal diseases. Calcium (Ca2+), a key second messenger in photoreceptor signaling and metabolism, has been proposed to be indirectly linked with photoreceptor degeneration in various animal models. Systematically studying these aspects of cone physiology and pathophysiology has been hampered by the difficulties of electrically recording from these small cells, in particular in the mouse where the retina is dominated by rod photoreceptors. To circumvent this issue, we established a two-photon Ca2+ imaging protocol using a transgenic mouse line that expresses the genetically encoded Ca2+ biosensor TN-XL exclusively in cones and can be crossbred with mouse models for photoreceptor degeneration. The protocol described here involves preparing vertical sections (&#8220;slices&#8221;) of retinas from mice and optical imaging of light stimulus-evoked changes in cone Ca2+ level. The protocol also allows &#8220;in-slice measurement&#8221; of absolute Ca2+ concentrations; as the recordings can be followed by calibration. This protocol enables studies into functional cone properties and is expected to contribute to the understanding of cone Ca2+ signaling as well as the potential involvement of Ca2+ in photoreceptor death and retinal degeneration.

Imaging Ca2+ Dynamics in Cone Photoreceptor Axon Terminals of the Mouse Retina

We describe a protocol to monitor Ca2+ dynamics in the axon terminals of cone photoreceptors using an ex-vivo&#160;slice preparation of the mouse retina. This protocol allows comprehensive studies of cone Ca2+ signaling in an important mammalian model system, the mouse.

Görüntüleme Ca<sup&gt; 2+</supFare Retina Koni fotoreseptör Akson Terminalleri içinde&gt; Dinamikleri

Retinal cone photoreceptors (cones) serve daylight vision and are the basis of color discrimination. They are subject to degeneration, often leading to ...

Transplantation of Chemogenetically Engineered Cortical Interneuron Progenitors into Early Postnatal Mouse Brains

Neuronal development is regulated by a complex combination of environmental and genetic factors. Assessing the relative contribution of each component is a complicated task, which is particularly difficult in regards to the development of &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic cortical interneurons (CIs). CIs are the main inhibitory neurons in the cerebral cortex, and they play key roles in neuronal networks, by regulating both the activity of individual pyramidal neurons, as well as the oscillatory behavior of neuronal ensembles. They are generated in transient embryonic structures (medial and caudal ganglionic eminences -&#160;MGE and CGE) that are very difficult to efficiently target using in utero electroporation approaches. Interneuron progenitors migrate long distances during normal embryonic development, before they integrate in the cortical circuit. This remarkable ability to disperse and integrate into a developing network can be hijacked by transplanting embryonic interneuron precursors into early post-natal host cortices. Here, we present a protocol that allows genetic modification of embryonic interneuron progenitors using focal ex vivo electroporation. These engineered interneuron precursors are then transplanted into early post-natal host cortices, where they will mature into easily identifiable CIs. This protocol allows the use of multiple genetically encoded tools, or the ability to regulate the expression of specific genes in interneuron progenitors, in order to investigate the impact of either genetic or environmental variables on the maturation and integration of CIs.

Here we present a protocol, designed to use chemogenetic tools to manipulate the activity of cortical interneuron progenitors transplanted into the cortex of early postnatal mice.

Erken Doğum Sonrası Fare Beyinlerine Kemogenetik Mühendislik Kortikal İnkornöron Progenitorlarının Nakli

Neuronal development is regulated by a complex combination of environmental and genetic factors. Assessing the relative contribution of each component is ...

Intrathecal Delivery of Antisense Oligonucleotides in the Rat Central Nervous System

The blood brain barrier (BBB) is an important defense against the entrance of potentially toxic or pathogenic agents from the blood into the central nervous system (CNS). However, its existence also dramatically lowers the accessibility of systemically administered therapeutic agents to the CNS. One method to overcome this, is to inject those agents directly into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), thus bypassing the BBB. This can be done via implantation of a catheter for either continuous infusion using an osmotic pump, or for single bolus delivery. In this article, we describe a surgical protocol for delivery of CNS-targeting antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) via a catheter implanted directly into the cauda equina space of the adult rat spine. As representative results, we show the efficacy of a single bolus ASO intrathecal (IT) injection via this catheterization system in knocking down the target RNA in different regions of the rat CNS. The procedure is safe, effective and does not require expensive equipment or surgical tools. The technique described here can be adapted to deliver drugs in other modalities as well.

Here, we describe a method for delivering drugs to the rat central nervous system by implanting a catheter into the lumbar intrathecal space of the spine. We focus on the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides, though this method is suitable for delivery of other therapeutic modalities as well.

Sıçan Merkezi Sinir Sisteminde Antisense Oligonükleotidlerin İntinal Teslimi

The blood brain barrier (BBB) is an important defense against the entrance of potentially toxic or pathogenic agents from the blood into the central ...