Name: dynamic electrochemical measurement of chloride ions
Uploaded: 2016-02-05T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 7 min 32 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dynamic Electrochemical Measurement of Chloride Ions at JoVE.com

This work is a part of the STW project "Integral solution for sustainable construction (IS2C, Fleur van Rossem for her support during the chip fabrication, Justyna Wiedemair for the chip design and Allison Bidulock for her support during the manuscript preparation.

1. Chip Fabrication
Note: The chip consists of an Ag/AgCl working electrode (WE), an Ag/AgCl pseudo-reference electrode (pseudo-RE) and a platinum counter electrode on a glass chip. The silver metal is deposited on a glass chip, using standard cleanroom processes16. It is then chloridized in 0.1 M FeCl3 solution for 30 sec to form an AgCl layer over the surface. The Ag/AgCl WE (area = 9.812 mm2) is located in the center, surrounded by the Ag/AgCl pseudo-RE as shown in Figure 1.
<ol>
	<li>Deposit the silver metal on glass to form a planar silver electrode. The step-by-step chip fabrication in a cleanroom is given as follows:
	<ol>
		<li>Lithography
		<ol>
			<li>For wafer cleaning, immerse the glass wafer first into conc. HNO3 bath to remove any organic contamination and then into 1 M KOH to clean the surface.</li>
			<li>Apply a positive photo resist (200 nm thick) to the wafer by spin coating and prebake the resist at 95 &#176;C for 15 min.</li>
			<li>Expose the wafer to UV light for 5 sec through a glass mask.</li>
			<li>Develop the photoresist in developer solution. This will expose the area of glass where electrodes will be deposited and the remaining area will be covered by the unexposed resist.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Glass Etching
		<ol>
			<li>Immerse the developed glass wafer in the KOH bath to etch the exposed area of the glass.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Metal Deposition (Sputtering)
		<ol>
			<li>Deposit silver metal on the exposed glass area.
			<ol>
				<li>First deposit a 20 nm titanium (Ti) layer (by sputtering) as an adhesion layer for glass.</li>
				<li>Then deposit 70 nm palladium (Pd) layer (by sputtering) as a diffusion barrier between silver and Ti.</li>
				<li>Finally deposit 500 nm of silver metal. This is the thickness of the deposited metal. The area of the working electrode is 4 mm2.</li>
				<li>Remove the remaining resist by lift-off process in an acetone bath.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Dice the wafer into the single chip size. The chip is now ready to be chloridized to form an on-chip Ag/AgCl electrode.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Place the chip in an in-house designed Polytetrafluoroethylene chip holder, as shown in Figure 1. The holder provides easy electrical connections via push-pins (or spring-loaded pins) and contains an electrochemical cell.</li>
	<li>Chloridize the silver electrode to form an Ag/AgCl electrode on the chip. For that, pour 0.1 M FeCl3 solution in the cell for 30 sec. or till the silver color of the electrode becomes dark grayish. Longer immersion is not critical whereas shorter immersion time can lead to no deposition of Ag/AgCl.</li>
	<li>Rinse the chip with deionized water to clean the remaining FeCl3.The chip is now ready to be used for the chronopotentiometric measurement.</li>
</ol>
2. Electrolyte Preparation
Note: The electrolytes were prepared with different concentration of potassium chloride in 0.5 M KNO3.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 50 ml of 50 mM KCl electrolyte stock solution (0.186 g of KCl in 50 ml of solution).</li>
	<li>In the same solution add 2.52 g of KNO3 to form a 0.5 M KNO3 background electrolyte.</li>
	<li>Keep the starting concentration of chloride to zero and KNO3 to 0.5 M. In other words add 2.52 g of KNO3 in a 50 ml of deionized water.</li>
	<li>Add 50 mM KCl to increase the chloride ion concentration (from 1 mM to 6 mM) of the electrolyte, systematically, as shown in the following steps.
	<ol>
		<li>Add 100 &#181;l of the 50 mM KCl into a 4.9 ml of 0.5 M KNO3 to get 1 mM [Cl&#713;].</li>
		<li>Add 104 &#181;l of the 50 mM KCl solution into the solution of step 2.4.1 to get 2 mM [Cl&#713;].</li>
		<li>Add 108.41 &#181;l of the 50 mM KCl solution into the solution of step 2.4.2 to get 3 mM [Cl&#713;].</li>
		<li>Add 113.19 &#181;l of the 50 mM KCl solution into the solution of step 2.4.3 to get 4 mM [Cl&#713;].</li>
		<li>Add 118.2 &#181;l of the 50 mM KCl solution into the solution of step 2.4.4 to get 5 mM [Cl&#713;].</li>
		<li>Add 123.3 &#181;l of the 50 mM KCl solution into the solution of step 2.4.5 to get 6 mM [Cl&#713;].</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Experimental Setup
Note: The measurements were performed using a potentiostat (Biologic Science Instruments, France).
<ol>
	<li>Place the chip in the chip holder and connect the corresponding terminal of the potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Connect the working electrode terminal of the potentiostat to the Ag/AgCl electrode.</li>
	<li>Connect the reference electrode terminal of the potentiostat to another Ag/AgCl electrode.</li>
	<li>Connect the counter electrode terminal of the potentiostat to the platinum electrode.</li>
	<li>Place the complete experiment setup in a faraday cage to avoid ambient noise.</li>
</ol>
4. Instrument Operational Settings
Note: The operational parameters of the electrochemical cell are controlled via the user interface of the potentiostat. The potential response of the Ag/AgCl WE during an applied current pulse is measured for different concentrations of chloride ion.
<ol>
	<li>In the potentiostat program, open the technique chronopotentiometry and set the operational parameters.
	<ol>
		<li>Set the following parameter according to the requirements:
		<ol>
			<li>Current (Is)</li>
			<li>Time of applied current (ts)</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Start this technique by clicking the play button in the potentiostat program. 
		Note: The potentiostat program displays the potential response as a function of time under the applied current pulse.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Measurements and Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Draw the calibration curve of the transition time vs. Cl&#713; ion concentration in electrolyte.
	<ol>
		<li>Change the Cl&#713; concentration in the KCl electrolyte, systematically.
		<ol>
			<li>Start the measurement with 5 ml of 1 mM KCl with 0.5 M KNO3 background electrolyte in the electrochemical cell.</li>
			<li>Start the chronopotentiometric experiment by using the potentiostat and apply a current of 10 mA/cm-2 for 10 sec and store the data.</li>
			<li>Systematically change the concentration to 6 mM with 1 mM increments and repeat the measurements.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Store the measured data as a.mpt file and analyze the data file in data processing program.
		<ol>
			<li>Analyze the data using an in-house developed data processing program to calculate the first derivative of the potential response and calculate the peak of the first derivative. The peak of the first derivative is the transition time. 
			Note: The complete coding of data processing program is given in the supplementary information of Abbas et al., 2014.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Repeat the measurement three times with the interval of 1 hr each.</li>
		<li>Open all the data files in data processing program and calculate the transition time for each measurement. Detail steps of transition time calculation is given below:
		<ol>
			<li>Plot the potential difference vs. time obtained from the data files of chronopotentiometric measurement.</li>
			<li>Calculate the first derivative of the potential response.</li>
			<li>Indicate the maximum of the first derivative and the time of it. The time of the maximum of first derivative is the transition time.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>For the calibration curve, plot the square root of the transition time with respect to the concentration of Cl&#713; ions.</li>
		<li>Along the measured data plot the theoretical curve based on the Sand equation25. Calculate back the diffusion coefficient from the data plot.
		<ol>
			<li>In the measured data plot between transition time and the [Cl&#713;] take any point on the line and record the value of transition time and the [Cl&#713;]. The Sand equation is given as: 
			&#964; = (FC*/2j(1-tCl-))2 D&#960; 
			Here, C* is the bulk Cl&#713; ion concentration, F is the Faraday constant, j is the current density, tCl- is the transport number and D is the diffusion coefficient. Neglect the tCl- since it approaches zero for higher background electrolyte concentration.</li>
			<li>The only remaining variable in the Sand equation in the diffusion coefficient; put the value of transition time, the chloride ion concentration and the applied current in the Sand equation getting the value of the diffusion coefficient.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Drift Measurement
	<ol>
		<li>Pour 5 ml of 1 mM of the KCl in the electrochemical cell.</li>
		<li>In the potentiostat, set the applied current to be 10 Am-2 and time to be 10 sec.</li>
		<li>Measure the potential response for 2 weeks with three measurement each day with an interval of 3 hr between measurements.</li>
		<li>Refresh the electrolyte, i.e.,&#160;1 mM KCl, every day before performing the measurements.</li>
		<li>Plot the transition time over two weeks of measurements. The change in the transition time per day is the drift of the transition time response.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Effect of the pseudo-reference electrode on the transition time measurements 
	Note: Various pseudo-references such as a Ag/AgCl wire, a platinum wire and a steel wire are tested to measure the transition time.
	<ol>
		<li>Pour 4 mM of KCl electrolyte in the electrochemical cell.</li>
		<li>Use Ag/AgCl as a pseudo-reference electrode and connect it to the reference electrode terminal of the potentiostat. Due to anodic current pulse the Cl&#713; ions are depleted near the Ag/AgCl working electrode.</li>
		<li>Perform the chronopotentiometric measurement by applying a current density of 15 Am-2 for 10 sec.</li>
		<li>Repeat the measurements with platinum as a pseudo-reference electrode and record the data.</li>
		<li>Repeat the measurements with steel bar as a pseudo-reference electrode and record the data.</li>
		<li>Plot the measured transition time for various pseudo-reference electrodes used.</li>
		<li>Repeat the complete set of measurement with 5 mM of KCl and plot the transition time using various pseudo-reference electrodes.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Page, C., Treadaway, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aspects+of+the+electrochemistry+of+steel+in+concrete.">Aspects of the electrochemistry of steel in concrete.</a> Nature. 297, 109-115 (1982).</li><li>Koleva, D. A., Hu, J., van Breugel, K., Boshkov, N., de Wit, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conventional+and+pulse+cathodic+protection+of+reinforced+concrete:+electrochemical+approach+and+microstructural+investigations.">Conventional and pulse cathodic protection of reinforced concrete: electrochemical approach and microstructural investigations.</a> ECS Transactions. 1, 287-298 (2006).</li><li>Montemor, M., Simoes, A., Ferreira, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chloride-induced+corrosion+on+reinforcing+steel:+from+the+fundamentals+to+the+monitoring+techniques.">Chloride-induced corrosion on reinforcing steel: from the fundamentals to the monitoring techniques.</a> Cement and Concrete Composites. 25, 491-502 (2003).</li><li>Wegen, G., Polder, R. B., Breugel, K. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guideline+for+service+life+design+of+structural+concrete:+A+performance+based+approach+with+regard+to+chloride+induced+corrosion.">Guideline for service life design of structural concrete: A performance based approach with regard to chloride induced corrosion.</a> Heron. 57 (3), (2012).</li><li>Yoon, I., Koenders, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Theoretical+time+evolution+of+critical+chloride+content+in+concrete.">Theoretical time evolution of critical chloride content in concrete.</a> Structural Durability &amp; Health Monitoring. 5, 275-294 (2010).</li><li>Du, R. G., Hu, R. G., Huang, R. S., Lin, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+measurement+of+Cl-concentrations+and+pH+at+the+reinforcing+steel/concrete+interface+by+combination+sensors.">In situ measurement of Cl-concentrations and pH at the reinforcing steel/concrete interface by combination sensors.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 78, 3179-3185 (2006).</li><li>Angst, U., Elsener, B., Larsen, C. K., Vennesland, &. #. 2. 1. 6. ;. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Potentiometric+determination+of+the+chloride+ion+activity+in+cement+based+materials.">Potentiometric determination of the chloride ion activity in cement based materials.</a> Journal of Applied Electrochemistry. 40, 561-573 (2010).</li><li>Laferri&#232;re, F., Inaudi, D., Kronenberg, P., Smith, I. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+system+for+early+chloride+detection+in+concrete.">A new system for early chloride detection in concrete.</a> Smart Materials and Structures. 17, 045017 (2008).</li><li>Tang, J. L., Wang, J. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+chloride-ion+concentration+with+long-period+grating+technology.">Measurement of chloride-ion concentration with long-period grating technology.</a> Smart Materials and Structures. 16, 665 (2007).</li><li>Kohri, M., Ueda, T., Mizuguchi, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+a+near-infrared+spectroscopic+technique+to+estimate+the+chloride+ion+content+in+mortar+deteriorated+by+chloride+attack+and+carbonation.">Application of a near-infrared spectroscopic technique to estimate the chloride ion content in mortar deteriorated by chloride attack and carbonation.</a> Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology. 8, 15-25 (2010).</li><li>Tripathi, S. R., Inoue, H., Hasegawa, T., Kawase, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-destructive+Inspection+of+Chloride+Ion+in+Concrete+Structures+Using+Attenuated+Total+Reflection+of+Millimeter+Waves.">Non-destructive Inspection of Chloride Ion in Concrete Structures Using Attenuated Total Reflection of Millimeter Waves.</a> Journal of Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves. 34, 181-186 (2013).</li><li>Abbas, Y., Olthuis, W., van den Berg, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+chronopotentiometric+approach+for+measuring+chloride+ion+concentration.">A chronopotentiometric approach for measuring chloride ion concentration.</a> Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 188, 433-439 (2013).</li><li>Climent-Llorca, M. A., Viqueira-P&#233;rez, E., L&#242;pez-Atalaya, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embeddable+Ag/AgCl+sensors+for+in-situ+monitoring+chloride+contents+in+concrete.">Embeddable Ag/AgCl sensors for in-situ monitoring chloride contents in concrete.</a> Cement and Concrete Research. 26, 1157-1161 (1996).</li><li>Myrdal, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The electrochemistry and characteristics of embeddable reference electrodes for concrete. , (2014).</li><li>Angst, U., Vennesland, &. #. 2. 1. 6. ;., Myrdal, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+potentials+as+source+of+error+in+electrochemical+measurements+in+concrete.">Diffusion potentials as source of error in electrochemical measurements in concrete.</a> Materials and Structures. 42, 365-375 (2009).</li><li>Abbas, Y., de Graaf, D. B., Olthuis, W., van den Berg, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=No+more+conventional+reference+electrode:+Transition+time+for+determining+chloride+ion+concentration.">No more conventional reference electrode: Transition time for determining chloride ion concentration.</a> Analytica Chimica Acta. 821, 81-88 (2014).</li><li>Meyer, R. E., Posey, F. A., Lantz, P. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronopotentiometry+of+the+Ag&#8722;+AgCl+system+and+analysis+for+the+chloride+ion.">Chronopotentiometry of the Ag&#8722; AgCl system and analysis for the chloride ion.</a> Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 19, 99-109 (1968).</li><li>Olthuis, W., Langereis, G., Bergveld, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+metrits+of+differential+measuring+in+time+and+space.">The metrits of differential measuring in time and space.</a> Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering. 21, 5-26 (2001).</li><li>Bakker, E., Bhakthavatsalam, V., Gemene, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beyond+potentiometry:+robust+electrochemical+ion+sensor+concepts+in+view+of+remote+chemical+sensing.">Beyond potentiometry: robust electrochemical ion sensor concepts in view of remote chemical sensing.</a> Talanta. 75, 629-635 (2008).</li><li>Olthuis, W., Bomer, J., Bergveld, P., Bos, M., Van der Linden, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Iridium+oxide+as+actuator+material+for+the+ISFET-based+sensor-actuator+system.">Iridium oxide as actuator material for the ISFET-based sensor-actuator system.</a> Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 5, 47-52 (1991).</li><li>Bergveld, P., Eijkel, J., Olthuis, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detection+of+protein+concentrations+with+chronopotentiometry.">Detection of protein concentrations with chronopotentiometry.</a> Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 12, 905-916 (1997).</li><li>Iwamoto, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Derivative+chronopotentiometry.">Derivative chronopotentiometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 31, 1062-1065 (1959).</li><li>Olthuis, W., Bergveld, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simplified+design+of+the+coulometric+sensor-actuator+system+by+the+application+of+a+time-dependent+actuator+current.">Simplified design of the coulometric sensor-actuator system by the application of a time-dependent actuator current.</a> Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 7, 479-483 (1992).</li><li>Olthuis, W., Bergveld, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrated+coulometric+sensor-actuator+devices.">Integrated coulometric sensor-actuator devices.</a> Microchimica Acta. 121, 191-223 (1995).</li><li>Bard, A. J., Faulkner, L. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications. , (2001).</li><li>Bakker, E., B&#252;hlmann, P., Pretsch, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymer+Membrane+Ion-Selective+Electrodes-What+are+the+Limits?+.">Polymer Membrane Ion-Selective Electrodes-What are the Limits? .</a> Electroanalysis. 11, 915-933 (1999).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The transition time is the moment of inflection; it is theoretically independent of the reference potential i.e., the reference electrode. Therefore any metal wire can be used as a pseudo-reference electrode for transition time measurements. In contrast to the existing potentiometric measurement of chloride ions in concrete this method enables a long-term and calibration free measurement. Furthermore the sensitivity and the detection range of concentration can be tuned by adjusting the applied current pulse. For...

A chloride ion sensor based on the transition time measurement of an Ag/AgCl electrode is presented. The aim is to avoid the inherent drifts during the long-term continuous monitoring of the chloride ions in the electrolyte. Chronopotentiometric measurement, which is a dynamic measurement approach, of an Ag/AgCl electrode is used for this purpose. Here a rate of change of potential of an Ag/AgCl electrode is measured during a stimulus (galvanostatic pulse). The advantage of this approach is demonstrated by eluding the liquid-junction reference electrode and instead using any metal wire as a pseudo-reference electrode, therefore allowing the detection of Cl&#713; ions concentration for long-term (years) and in situ applications, such as measurement inside concrete structures.
Chloride ions in concrete structures is one of the major causes of degradation1,2. It initiates pitting corrosion in the reinforcement steel and results in the ultimate failure of the structure3. Therefore, measuring Cl&#713; ions in concrete is inevitable to predict the service life and maintenance cycle of a structure4,5. Different sensing principles have been reported for chloride ion measurement in concrete such as electrochemical6,7, optical8,9 and electromagnetic10,11. However, optical and electromagnetic methods have bulky setups, are difficult to integrate as a stand-alone system and have issues with selectivity12. In electrochemical technique, potentiometric measurement of an Ag/AgCl electrode is the state of the art approach6,7,13. Despite promising results, this approach is limited to lab-scale measurement since the drifts in reference potential and diffusion potential drop results in flawed data14,15. A transition time approach based on the dynamic electrochemical measurement (DEM) could alleviate the problem due to potential drift16.
In the DEM, a system&#39;s response to an applied stimulus is measured17-19. The example of such a system is chronopotentiometry. Here an applied current pulse is used as a stimulus depleting ions near the electrode surface and the corresponding potential response is measured. An anodic current at an Ag/AgCl electrode initiates a faradaic reaction (Ag + Cl&#713; <img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53312/arrow.jpg" />AgCl + e&#713;) resulting in a depletion of Cl&#713; ions near electrode surface. The potential change is a function of the applied current and the concentration of the (selective) ions in the electrolyte12,20. The moment these ions deplete completely near the electrode surface the rate of change of potential rises rapidly, giving an inflection point21. The inflection point on the potential-time response curve (chronopotentiogram) shows the transition time and can be determined from the maximum of the first derivative of the potential response22. The transition time is a characteristic of the ion concentration. This approach has been used to determine different ions concentration17 and the pH of electrolytes23,24. In case of an Ag/AgCl electrode as a working electrode (to which current is applied) the depleting ions will be chloride ions17. Therefore measuring its transition time will determine its concentration.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Platinum wire (&amp;ge;99.99% trace metals)</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, the Netherlands</td><td>EP1330-1EA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium chloride (BioXtra, &amp;ge;99.0%)</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, the Netherlands</td><td>P9333-500G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium hydroxide (90% pure reagent grade)</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, the Netherlands</td><td>484016-1KG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ferric chloride&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, the Netherlands</td><td>451649-1G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>potassium nitrate (&gt;99% reagent grade)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, the Netherlands</td><td>P6083-500G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ag/AgCl liquid junction reference electrode&amp;nbsp;</td><td>BASi, USA</td><td>model MF-2079</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>VSP potentiostat</td><td>Biologic Science Instruments, France</td><td>VSP 300</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Steel wire</td><td>Microlab TU Delft</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silver wire&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Sigma Aldrich, the Netherlands</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

dynamic electrochemical measurement of chloride ions

This protocol describes the dynamic measurement of chloride ions using the transition time of a silver silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode. Silver silver chloride electrode is used extensively for potentiometric measurement of chloride ions concentration in electrolyte. In this measurement, long-term and continuous monitoring is limited due to the inherent drift and the requirement of a stable reference electrode. We utilized the chronopotentiometric approach to minimize drift and avoid the use of a conventional reference electrode. A galvanostatic pulse is applied to an Ag/AgCl electrode which initiates a faradic reaction depleting the Cl&#713; ions near the electrode surface. The transition time, which is the time to completely deplete the ions near the electrode surface, is a function of the ion concentration, given by the Nernst equation. The square root of the transition time is in linear relation to the chloride ion concentration. Drift of the response over two weeks is negligible (59 &#181;M/day) when measuring 1 mM [Cl&#713;]using a current pulse of 10 Am-2. This is a dynamic measurement where the moment of transition time determines the response and thus is independent of the absolute potential. Any metal wire can be used as a pseudo-reference electrode, making this approach feasible for long-term measurement inside concrete structures.

The Ag/AgCl electrode is fabricated on a glass chip (Figure1) using a standard cleanroom process. The chronopotentiometric measurement setup (Figure 2) was used and response was measured using a potentiostat. To observe the effect of Cl&#713; ion concentration on the transition time, solutions containing 4, 5 and 6 mM of Cl&#713; ions in a 0.5 M KNO3 background are measured (Figure 3). The calibration curve of the square root o...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Dynamic Electrochemical Measurement of Chloride Ions at JoVE.com

Dynamic Electrochemical Measurement of Chloride Ions

Dynamic measurement of chloride ions is presented. Transition time of an Ag/AgCl electrode, during a chronopotentiometric technique, can give the concentration of chloride ions in electrolyte. This method does not require a stable conventional reference electrode.

This protocol describes the dynamic measurement of chloride ions using the transition time of a silver silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode. Silver silver ...

dynamic-electrochemical-measurement-of-chloride-ions

Research

Education

JoVE Core

JoVE Journal

Analytical Chemistry

Chemistry

Unit 1

Electrochemical Analyses and Redox Titration

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

11.4K Views.  University of Twente. Dynamic measurement of chloride ions is presented. Transition time of an Ag/AgCl electrode, during a chronopotentiometric technique, can give the concentration of chloride ions in electrolyte. This method does not require a stable conventional reference electrode.

Video: Dynamic Electrochemical Measurement of Chloride Ions

Measurement of Ion Concentration in the Unstirred Boundary Layer with Open Patch-Clamp Pipette: Implications in Control of Ion Channels by Fluid Flow

Fluid flow is an important environmental stimulus that controls many physiological and pathological processes, such as fluid flow-induced vasodilation. Although the molecular mechanisms for the biological responses to fluid flow/shear force are not fully understood, fluid flow-mediated regulation of ion channel gating may contribute critically. Therefore, fluid flow/shear force sensitivity of ion channels has been studied using the patch-clamp technique. However, depending on the experimental protocol, the outcomes and interpretation of data can be erroneous. Here, we present experimental and theoretical evidence for fluid flow-related errors and provide methods for estimating, preventing, and correcting these errors. Changes in junction potential between the Ag/AgCl reference electrode and bathing fluid were measured with an open pipette filled with 3 M KCl. Fluid flow could then shift the liquid/metal junction potential to approximately 7 mV. Conversely, by measuring the voltage shift induced by fluid flow, we estimated the ion concentration in the unstirred boundary layer. In the static condition, the real ion concentrations adjacent to the Ag/AgCl reference electrode or ion channel inlet at the cell-membrane surface can reach as low as approximately 30% of that in the flow condition. Placing an agarose 3 M KCl bridge between the bathing fluid and reference electrode may have prevented this problem of junction potential shifting. However, the unstirred layer effect adjacent to the cell membrane surface could not be fixed in this way. Here, we provide a method for measuring real ion concentrations in the unstirred boundary layer with an open patch-clamp pipette, emphasizing the importance of using an agarose salt-bridge while studying fluid flow-induced regulation of ion currents. Therefore, this novel approach, which takes into consideration the real concentrations of ions in the unstirred boundary layer, may provide useful insight on the experimental design and data interpretation related to fluid shear stress regulation of ion channels.

Mechanosensitive ion channels are often studied in terms of fluid flow/shear force sensitivity with patch-clamp recording. However, depending on the experimental protocol, the outcome on fluid flow-regulations of ion channels can be erroneous. Here, we provide methods for preventing and correcting such errors with a theoretical basis.

Fluid flow is an important environmental stimulus that controls many physiological and pathological processes, such as fluid flow-induced vasodilation. ...

Biochemistry

Experimental Protocol to Determine the Chloride Threshold Value for Corrosion in Samples Taken from Reinforced Concrete Structures

The aging of reinforced concrete infrastructure in developed countries imposes an urgent need for methods to reliably assess the condition of these structures. Corrosion of the embedded reinforcing steel is the most frequent cause for degradation. While it is well known that the ability of a structure to withstand corrosion depends strongly on factors such as the materials used or the age, it is common practice to rely on threshold values stipulated in standards or textbooks. These threshold values for corrosion initiation (Ccrit) are independent of the actual properties of a certain structure, which clearly limits the accuracy of condition assessments and service life predictions. The practice of using tabulated values can be traced to the lack of reliable methods to determine Ccrit on-site and in the laboratory.
Here, an experimental protocol to determine Ccrit for individual engineering structures or structural members is presented. A number of reinforced concrete samples are taken from structures and laboratory corrosion testing is performed. The main advantage of this method is that it ensures real conditions concerning parameters that are well known to greatly influence Ccrit, such as the steel-concrete interface, which cannot be representatively mimicked in laboratory-produced samples. At the same time, the accelerated corrosion test in the laboratory permits the reliable determination of Ccrit prior to corrosion initiation on the tested structure; this is a major advantage over all common condition assessment methods that only permit estimating the conditions for corrosion after initiation, i.e., when the structure is already damaged.
The protocol yields the statistical distribution of Ccrit for the tested structure. This serves as a basis for probabilistic prediction models for the remaining time to corrosion, which is needed for maintenance planning. This method can potentially be used in material testing of civil infrastructures, similar to established methods used for mechanical testing.

We propose a method to measure a parameter that is highly relevant for corrosion assessments or predictions of reinforced concrete structures, with the main advantage of permitting testing of samples from engineering structures. This ensures real conditions at the steel-concrete interface, which are crucial to avoid artifacts of laboratory-made samples.

The aging of reinforced concrete infrastructure in developed countries imposes an urgent need for methods to reliably assess the condition of these ...

Engineering

Electrochemical Roughening of Thin-Film Platinum Macro and Microelectrodes

This protocol demonstrates a method for electrochemical roughening of thin-film platinum electrodes without preferential dissolution at grain boundaries of the metal. Using this method, a crack free, thin-film macroelectrode surface with up to 40 times increase in active surface area was obtained. The roughening is easy to do in a standard electrochemical characterization laboratory and incudes the application of voltage pulses followed by extended application of a reductive voltage in a perchloric acid solution. The protocol includes the chemical and electrochemical preparation of both a macroscale (1.2 mm diameter) and microscale (20 &#181;m diameter) platinum disc electrode surface, roughening the electrode surface and characterizing the effects of surface roughening on electrode active surface area. This electrochemical characterization includes cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy and is demonstrated for both the macroelectrodes and the microelectrodes. Roughening increases electrode active surface area, decreases electrode impedance, increases platinum charge injection limits to those of titanium nitride electrodes of same geometry and improves substrates for adhesion of electrochemically deposited films.

This protocol demonstrates a method for electrochemical roughening of thin-film platinum electrodes without preferential dissolution at grain boundaries. The electrochemical techniques of cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy are demonstrated to characterize these electrode surfaces.

This protocol demonstrates a method for electrochemical roughening of thin-film platinum electrodes without preferential dissolution at grain boundaries ...

Merging Ion Concentration Polarization between Juxtaposed Ion Exchange Membranes to Block the Propagation of the Polarization Zone

The ion concentration polarization (ICP) phenomenon is one of the most prevailing methods to preconcentrate low-abundance biological samples. The ICP induces a noninvasive region for charged biomolecules (i.e., the ion depletion zone), and targets can be preconcentrated on this region boundary. Despite the high preconcentration performances with ICP, it is difficult to find the operating conditions of non-propagating ion depletion zones. To overcome this narrow operating window, we recently developed a new platform for spatiotemporally fixed preconcentration. Unlike preceding methods that only use ion depletion, this platform also uses the opposite polarity of the ICP (i.e., ion enrichment) to stop the propagation of the ion depletion zone. By confronting the enrichment zone with the depletion zone, the two zones merge together and stop. In this paper, we describe a detailed experimental protocol to build this spatiotemporally defined ICP platform and characterize the preconcentration dynamics of the new platform by comparing them with those of the conventional device. Qualitative ion concentration profiles and current-time responses successfully capture the different dynamics between the merged ICP and the stand-alone ICP. In contrast to the conventional one that can fix the preconcentration location at only ~5 V, the new platform can produce a target-condensed plug at a specific location in the broad ranges of operating conditions: voltage (0.5-100 V), ionic strength (1-100 mM), and pH (3.7-10.3).

The protocol for a novel ion concentration polarization (ICP) platform that can stop the propagation of the ICP zone, regardless of the operating conditions is described. This unique ability of the platform lies in the use of merging ion depletion and enrichment, which are two polarities of the ICP phenomenon.

The ion concentration polarization (ICP) phenomenon is one of the most prevailing methods to preconcentrate low-abundance biological samples. The ICP ...

Bioengineering

Precise Electrochemical Sizing of Individual Electro-Inactive Particles

Nanoimpact electrochemistry enables the time-resolved in situ characterization (e.g., size, catalytic activity) of single nanomaterial units, providing a means of elucidating heterogeneities that would be masked in ensemble studies. To implement this technique with redox inactive particles, a solution-phase redox reaction is used to produce a steady-state background current on a disk ultramicroelectrode. When a particle adsorbs onto the electrode, it produces a stepwise reduction in the exposed electrode area, which produces, in turn, a stepwise decrease in the current commensurate with the size of the adsorbing species. Historically, however, nanoimpact electrochemistry has suffered from &#34;edge effects,&#34; in which the radial diffusion layer formed at the circumference of the ultramicroelectrodes renders the step size dependent not only on the size of the particle but also on where it lands on the electrode. The introduction of electrocatalytic current generation, however, mitigates the heterogeneity caused by edge effects, thus improving the measurement precision. In this approach, termed &#34;electrocatalytic interruption,&#34; a substrate that regenerates the redox probe at the diffusion layer is introduced. This shifts the rate-limiting step of the current generation from diffusion to the homogeneous reaction rate constant, thus reducing flux heterogeneity and increasing the precision of particle sizing by an order of magnitude. The protocol described here explains the set-up and data collection employed in nanoimpact experiments implementing this effect for improved precision in the sizing of redox in-active materials.

As an analytical technique, nanoimpact electrochemistry, an increasingly important approach to counting and characterizing nanometer-scale, electro-inactive particles, suffers from poor precision due to the heterogeneous current distributions that arise from its use of ultramicroelectrodes. Outlined here is a generalized approach, termed "electrocatalytic interruption," that enhances precision in such measurements.

Nanoimpact electrochemistry enables the time-resolved in situ characterization (e.g., size, catalytic activity) of single nanomaterial units, providing a ...

Double-barreled and Concentric Microelectrodes for Measurement of Extracellular Ion Signals in Brain Tissue

Electrical activity in the brain is accompanied by significant ion fluxes across membranes, resulting in complex changes in the extracellular concentration of all major ions. As these ion shifts bear significant functional consequences, their quantitative determination is often required to understand the function and dysfunction of neural networks under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. In the present study, we demonstrate the fabrication and calibration of double-barreled ion-selective microelectrodes, which have proven to be excellent tools for such measurements in brain tissue. Moreover, so-called &#8220;concentric&#8221; ion-selective microelectrodes are also described, which, based on their different design, offer a far better temporal resolution of fast ion changes. We then show how these electrodes can be employed in acute brain slice preparations of the mouse hippocampus. Using double-barreled, potassium-selective microelectrodes, changes in the extracellular potassium concentration ([K+]o) in response to exogenous application of glutamate receptor agonists or during epileptiform activity are demonstrated. Furthermore, we illustrate the response characteristics of sodium-sensitive, double-barreled and concentric electrodes and compare their detection of changes in the extracellular sodium concentration ([Na+]o) evoked by bath or pressure application of drugs. These measurements show that while response amplitudes are similar, the concentric sodium microelectrodes display a superior signal-to-noise ratio and response time as compared to the double-barreled design. Generally, the demonstrated procedures will be easily transferable to measurement of other ions species, including pH or calcium, and will also be applicable to other preparations.

We demonstrate the fabrication, calibration and properties of two types of ion-selective microelectrodes (double-barreled and concentric) for measurement of ion concentrations in brain tissue. These are then used in the mouse hippocampal slice preparation to show that excitatory activity changes both extracellular potassium and sodium concentrations.

Electrical activity in the brain is accompanied by significant ion fluxes across membranes, resulting in complex changes in the extracellular ...

Neuroscience

A Micro-agar Salt Bridge Electrode for Analyzing the Proton Turnover Rate of Recombinant Membrane Proteins

To date, more than 50% of all pharmacological drugs target the transport kinetics of membrane proteins. The electrophysiological characterization of membrane carrier proteins reconstituted in lipid bilayer membranes is a powerful but delicate method for the assessment of their physicochemical and pharmacological properties. The substrate turnover number is a unique parameter that allows the comparison of the activity of different membrane proteins. In an electrogenic transport, the gradient of the translocated substrate creates a membrane potential that directly correlates to the substrate turnover rate of the protein. By using silver chloride electrodes, a diffusion potential, also called liquid junction potential, is induced, which alters electrode potential and significantly disturbs precise membrane potential measurements. Diffusion potential can be minimized by a salt bridge, which balances electrode potential. In this article, a micro-agar salt bridge is designed to improve the electrophysiological set-up, which uses micropipettes for the membrane formation. The salt solution is filled into a microcapillary pipette tip, stabilized by the addition of agarose, and can be easily mounted to a standard electrode. The electrode potential of a micro-salt bridge electrode is more stable compared to a standard electrode. The implementation of this system stabilizes electrode potential and allows more precise measurements of membrane potential generated by a pH gradient. Using this system, the proton turnover rates of the mitochondrial carriers UCP1 and UCP3 are reinvestigated and compared to earlier measurements.

In electrophysiological measurements, the presence of a diffusion potential disturbs the precise measurement of the reverse potential by altering the electrode potential. Using a micro-agar salt bridge, the impact of the diffusion potential is minimized, which allows a more precise measurement of substrate turnover numbers of reconstituted recombinant membrane proteins.

To date, more than 50% of all pharmacological drugs target the transport kinetics of membrane proteins. The electrophysiological characterization of ...

A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

The last 15 years have been characterized by an explosion in the ability to overexpress and purify membrane proteins from prokaryotic organisms as well as from eukaryotes. This increase has been largely driven by the successful push to obtain structural information on membrane proteins. However, the ability to functionally interrogate these proteins has not advanced at the same rate and is often limited to qualitative assays of limited quantitative value, thereby limiting the mechanistic insights that they can provide. An assay to quantitatively investigate the transport activity of reconstituted Cl- channels or transporters is described. The assay is based on the measure of the efflux rate of Cl- from proteoliposomes following the addition of the K+ ionophore valinomycin to shunt the membrane potential. An ion sensitive electrode is used to follow the time-course of ion efflux from proteoliposomes reconstituted with the desired protein. The method is highly suited for mechanistic studies, as it allows for the quantitative determination of key properties of the reconstituted protein, such as its unitary transport rate, the fraction of active protein and the molecular mass of the functional unit. The assay can also be utilized to determine the effect of small molecule compounds that directly inhibit/activate the reconstituted protein, as well as to test the modulatory effects of the membrane composition or lipid-modifying reagents. Where possible, direct comparison between results obtained using this method were found to be in good agreement with those obtained using electrophysiological approaches. The technique is illustrated using CLC-ec1, a CLC-type H+/Cl- exchanger, as a model system. The efflux assay can be utilized to study any Cl- conducting channel/transporter and, with minimal changes, can be adapted to study any ion-transporting protein.

A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

Proteoliposomes are used to study purified channels and transporters reconstituted in a well-defined biochemical environment. An experimental procedure to measure efflux mediated by these proteins is illustrated. The steps to prepare proteoliposomes, perform the recordings, and analyze data to quantitatively determine the functional properties of the reconstituted protein are described.

The last 15 years have been characterized by an explosion in the ability to overexpress and purify membrane proteins from prokaryotic organisms as well as ...

Biology

Measurement of Extracellular Ion Fluxes Using the Ion-selective Self-referencing Microelectrode Technique

Cells from animals, plants and single cells are enclosed by a barrier called the cell membrane that separates the cytoplasm from the outside. Cell layers such as epithelia also form a barrier that separates the inside from the outside or different compartments of multicellular organisms. A key feature of these barriers is the differential distribution of ions across cell membranes or cell layers. Two properties allow this distribution: 1) membranes and epithelia display selective permeability to specific ions; 2) ions are transported through pumps across cell membranes and cell layers. These properties play crucial roles in maintaining tissue physiology and act as signaling cues after damage, during repair, or under pathological condition. The ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode allows measurements of specific fluxes of ions such as calcium, potassium or sodium at single cell and tissue levels. The microelectrode contains an ionophore cocktail which is selectively permeable to a specific ion. The internal filling solution contains a set concentration of the ion of interest. The electric potential of the microelectrode is determined by the outside concentration of the ion. As the ion concentration varies, the potential of the microelectrode changes as a function of the log of the ion activity. When moved back and forth near a source or sink of the ion (i.e. in a concentration gradient due to ion flux) the microelectrode potential fluctuates at an amplitude proportional to the ion flux/gradient. The amplifier amplifies the microelectrode signal and the output is recorded on computer. The ion flux can then be calculated by Fick&#8217;s law of diffusion using the electrode potential fluctuation, the excursion of microelectrode, and other parameters such as the specific ion mobility. In this paper, we describe in detail the methodology to measure extracellular ion fluxes using the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode and present some representative results.

Transporters in cell membranes allow differential segregation of ions across cell membranes or cell layers and play crucial roles during tissue physiology, repair and pathology. We describe the ion-selective self-referencing microelectrode that allows the measurement of specific ion fluxes at single cells and tissues in vivo.

Cells from animals, plants and single cells are enclosed by a barrier called the cell membrane that separates the cytoplasm from the outside. Cell layers ...

Electrochemical Measurements of Supported Catalysts Using a Potentiostat/Galvanostat

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Yuriy Rom&#225;n &#8212; Massachusetts Institute of Technology
A potentiostat/galvanostat (often referred to as simply a potentiostat) is an instrument that measures current at an applied potential (potentiostatic operation) or measures potential at an applied current (galvanostatic operation) (Figure 1). It is the most commonly used instrument in the electrochemical characterization of anode and cathode materials for fuel cells, electrolyzers, batteries, and supercapacitors.
Conventionally, these anode and cathode materials are interfaced with a potentiostat via a three-electrode electrochemical cell. The electrode leads from the potentiostat are connected to the reference electrode, the counter electrode (often called the auxiliary electrode), and the working electrode (which contains the test material of interest). The electrochemical cell is then filled with a high ionic strength electrolyte solution, such as an acidic, alkaline, or salt solution. The media for this high ionic strength solution is typically aqueous; however, for applications necessitating higher operating cell potential windows, such as batteries and supercapacitors, non-aqueous media is often used. The cell media is degassed with an inert gas (to prevent unwanted side reactions) or with a test gas (if the test reaction involves a gas at one of the electrodes).
Alternatively, a salt bridge or membrane is employed to maintain ionic contact if the two half cells are to be measured in different electrolytes. In heterogeneous electrocatalysis, this type of &#34;two compartment&#34; cell is often used if the test molecule at the working electrode is also reactive at the counterelectrode. This happens frequently as the counterelectrode typically employed is platinum, which is a highly active catalyst for many reactions. Here, single compartment cells will be used, where all three electrodes are in the same media.
This video will explain the process of polishing a working electrode, preparing a catalyst ink, mounting the catalyst ink onto the working electrode, preparing the electrochemical cell, and then performing electrochemical measurements. The measurements that are performed include: cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), chronopotentiometry (CP), and chronoamperometry (CA).
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/5698/5698fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. An example of a single compartment electrochemical cell. a.) Teflon cap, b.) glass cell, c.) Pt wire counter electrode, d.) working electrode, e.) Ag/AgCl reference electrode, f.) 0.5 M aqueous sulfuric acid electrolyte solution.