The authors would like to thank Hector Quirante for the expression and purification of huTau441, Hanna Ingan&#228;s and Margot van Winsen for excellent technical support and Martin Koldijk for data analysis.

1. Reagent Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Reaction buffer
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare reaction buffer: 0.5 mM TCEP in PBS, pH 6.7 by dissolving TCEP dry powder (MW= 286.65 g/mol) in PBSstock solution, pH 7.4. 
		NOTE: The presence of TCEP is due to bridging aggregation studies using wild type tau protein which contains cysteines. In the current protocol, TCEP is only used to adjust the pH of PBS from 7.4 to 6.7 and plays no role in regulating any redox reactions.</li>
		<li>Mix thoroughly and filter the solution through a sterile 0.22 &#956;m pore size PES membrane filter.</li>
		<li>Aliquot and store at -80 &#730;C.</li>
		<li>Thaw on the bench and stabilize at RT before use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>huTau441
	<ol>
		<li>Remove huTau441 (for protein expression and purification see Apetri et al.24) from -80 &#730;C freezer.</li>
		<li>Thaw on the bench and equilibrate to room temperature (RT).</li>
		<li>Spin tube with protein stock for 5 min at 12,000 x g at 20-25 &#730;C to eliminate air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Measure the concentration of huTau441by absorption at 280 nm using an extinction coefficient of 0.31 mL mg-1cm-1</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Thioflavin T
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare 500 &#956;M thioflavin T (ThT) stock solution by dissolving 10 mg of ThT dry powder (MW=318.86 g/mol) in 35 mL reaction buffer.</li>
		<li>Mix thoroughly, vortex 3 times for 20 seconds at maximum speed and filter the solution through a sterile 0.22 &#956;m pore size PES membrane filter.</li>
		<li>Determine concentration by absorption measurements at 411 nm using an extinction coefficient of 22,000 M-1 cm-1 and adjust ThT concentration to 500 &#956;M. Store at RT protected from light. Prepare fresh every 2 months.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Heparin
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare fresh 55 &#956;M heparin solution by dissolving 1 mg of HMW heparin dry powder (MW = 17-19 kDa) in 1 mL reaction buffer at RT.</li>
		<li>Shake vigorously and vortex 2 times for 5 seconds.</li>
		<li>Filter solution through a sterile 0.20 &#956;m pore size PES membrane filter (syringe).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Continuous Mode ThT Aggregation Assay on a Multi-Mode Microplate Reader
NOTE: ThT dye is added to the reaction to monitor huTau441 aggregation kinetics in a continuous mode (automatic measurements). Although the reaction can be followed by a regular fluorometer using a conventional cuvette, the manual nature of the operation limits the frequency of measurements and compromises the accuracy of the recorded kinetic curves. For this reason, an automatic multi-mode microplate reader is used.
<ol>
	<li>Instrument set up
	<ol>
		<li>Turn on the computer and the multi-mode microplate reader. Let the equipment stabilize for 10 minutes.</li>
		<li>Start the software and prepare a protocol.
		<ol>
			<li>Select the protocol type: standard protocol (Data reduction is performed independently for each plate).</li>
			<li>Set the temperature at 37 &#730;C and select preheatment before continuing the protocol.</li>
			<li>Set the kinetic run: Run Time 50 h / Measurement interval: 15 min.</li>
			<li>Set orbital shaking at 425 cpm (3 mm) in continuous mode.</li>
			<li>Select the read method: Fluorescence intensity - Endpoint/Kinetic - Monochromators Wavelengths: Excitation 440 nm (20 nm bandwidth)/ Emission 485 nm (20 nm bandwidth) - Optics position: Top - Normal read speed - Read height: 4.50 mm</li>
			<li>Start the run using the created protocol. Name the experiment, select the destination of the newly created file and allow the instrument to pre-equilibrate to desired temperature.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Spontaneous huTau441 conversion
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare the reaction sample in a 1.5 mL tube. Use 200 &#956;L mix per reaction and at least 4 replicates (reaction volume for 4 replicates = 800 &#956;L).</li>
		<li>Prepare 800 &#956;L reaction sample (in case of 4 replicates) containing 15 &#956;M huTau441, 8 &#956;M heparin and 50 &#956;M ThT. Start by mixing the protein with the reaction buffer, add heparin and ThT and mix well by pipetting up and down 5 times. Respect the indicated order for reagent addition.</li>
		<li>Spin samples at 12,000 x g and 25 &#730;C for 5 min to eliminate air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Dispense 200 &#956;L of reaction sample per well in 96-well microplates (96-well black solid microplate, well-volume 360 &#956;L, flat bottom). Avoid formation of air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Seal microplate to avoid evaporation.</li>
		<li>Place microplate in multi-mode microplate reader and start measurements.</li>
		<li>After completion of experiment, remove plate from equipment and export data to a data processing software.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Quality check of the conversion, seed collection and storage.
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the sealer from the plate and pool the different replicates in 1.5 mL tubes. Mix well the aggregated sample in the wells by pipetting up and down 2 times before collecting it. Aggregates tend to deposit on the bottom of the well.</li>
		<li>Mix thoroughly in the 1.5 mL tube by pipetting up and down 5 times and dispense 10-20 &#956;L on a mica surface for analyzing the aggregates by AFM(for further details see Apetri et al.24).</li>
		<li>Harvest the aggregates by spinning the 1.5 mL tube at 20,000 x g and 4 &#730;C for 1 hour. Aggregates form a pellet.</li>
		<li>Separate and analyze supernatant by S-MALS to confirm the absence of monomeric tau in the sample indicating a successful conversion into aggregates (for further details see Apetri et al.24).</li>
		<li>Label the 1.5 mL tube containing the remaining aggregates (pellet)indicating initial huTau441 protein concentration and sample volume. Snap freeze the aggregates and store at -80 &#730;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Seeded reaction
	<ol>
		<li>Remove huTau441 aggregates from -80 &#730;C freezer. Add the volume of reaction buffer indicated on the label (initial sample volume) and let the tube stabilize to RT. Resuspend the aggregates by pipetting up and down 5 to 8 times.</li>
		<li>Sonicate the aggregated sample. For a 200 &#956;L sample (15 &#956;M huTau441), sonicate on ice using a 1/8&#34; microtip (from 100 &#956;L up to 10 mL) for a total period of 15 s using pulses of 1 s and pauses of 2 s at 30% amplitude (sonicator 250 Watts). Re-equilibrate sample to RT. 
		NOTE: The employed sonication conditions lead to a homogeneous population of tau fibrils with lengths of 20-50 nm24.</li>
		<li>Prepare the reaction sample in 1.5 mL tubes. Use 200 &#956;L mix per reaction and at least 4 replicates (reaction volume for 4 replicates = 800 &#956;L).</li>
		<li>Prepare 800 &#956;L reaction sample containing 15 &#956;M huTau441, 8 &#956;M heparin and 50 &#956;M ThT. Start by mixing the protein with the reaction buffer, add heparin and ThT and mix well by pipetting up and down 5 times. Respect the indicated order for reagent addition.</li>
		<li>Spin samples at 12,000 x g and 25 &#730;C for 5 min to eliminate air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Dispense 200 &#956;L of reaction sample per well in 96-well (96-well black solid microplate, well-volume 360 &#956;L, flat bottom). Avoid formation of air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Homogenize thoroughly the preformed fibril sample by repetitive up and down pipetting (5 times) and add to each well the amount corresponding to the desired percentage of seeds. For a 200 &#956;L well total volume, 2 &#956;L of preformed seed addition is a 1% (v/v). Mix by pipetting up and down 3 times when adding to the well and avoid formation of air bubbles.</li>
		<li>Seal microplate to avoid evaporation.</li>
		<li>Place microplate in multi-mode microplate reader and start measurements.</li>
		<li>Remove plate from equipment and export data to a spreadsheet.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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In vitro evidence for a common effector of pathogenesis in Alzheimer's disease.</a> American Journal of Pathology. 150 (6), 2181-2195 (1997).</li><li>Barghorn, S., Mandelkow, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Toward+a+unified+scheme+for+the+aggregation+of+tau+into+Alzheimer+paired+helical+filaments.">Toward a unified scheme for the aggregation of tau into Alzheimer paired helical filaments.</a> Biochemistry. 41 (50), 14885-14896 (2002).</li><li>Friedhoff, P., Schneider, A., Mandelkow, E. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Despite numerous efforts, the tau aggregation kinetics reported in the literature to date lack the desired level of reproducibility and/or some of the features of a nucleation dependent polymerization19,20,21,22,23,25. This is often emphasized by the lack of a lag phase, inefficient seeding and non-fibrillar nature of tau aggregates. The reason for these shortcomings can vary and includes sub-optimal tau protein quality (fragmentation, presence of aggregates, low purity, etc.), choice of protein and inducing reagents and or experimental conditions. Another complicating factor are the two cysteine residues located around the tau aggregation interface that can form intra- or inter- molecular disulfide bridges depending on the redox environment and affect the efficiency of tau aggregation. In most approaches reducing reagents such as DTT or TCEP have been used to maintain the cysteine residues in reduced forms and thus increase levels of reproducibility25. Furthermore, the extinction coefficient of tau is very low which leads to difficulties in accurate measurements of protein concentration.
We focused especially on a few parameters and quality attributes that we considered crucial for a robust, reproducible and representative aggregation profile for tau protein: eliminating the possibility of intra- and inter- molecular disulfide formation, generating a highly pure tau monomer and improving the accuracy of concentration determination. All these reagent related questions are potential attention points that we considered critical for optimal assay development. To address these issues, full length huTau441 was expressed with two mutations, C291A and C322A, and with N- and C- terminal tags. Mutation of the cysteine residues has minimal impact on the tau protein while eliminating the otherwise very difficult to control disulfide bridging. Expressing the protein with relatively short N- and C- terminal tags allowed us to pursue a two-step affinity purification protocol which led to very high purity, integrity and monomer content. Furthermore, we introduced a F8W mutation that increased the extinction coefficient of the protein and allowed much more accurate concentration measurements24.
In addition to using high-quality protein reagents, other assay parameters were also optimized. The optimal tau : heparin ratio was identified to be around 0.5 (M/M) which is in line with previously published studies26. Furthermore, mechanical and optical instrumental settings are crucial to ensure reproducibility and the optimal parameters might differ to some extent depending on the manufacturer.
The aggregation of tau described in this assay shows characteristics that are associated with tau pathogenesis in AD and related tauopathies. The process starts with an initial lag phase corresponding to the formation of high energy nuclei and is followed by a rapid growth phase that corresponds to fibril growth. The lag time is sufficiently long to open a broad window to study in detail the seeding process covering a broad range of seed concentrations (Figure 5) while still not too long so protein degradation and/or non-specific aggregation are avoided (Figure 2). These secondary events could especially happen when an intrinsically disordered protein such as huTau441 is exposed for long periods of time to physiological conditions. The obtained tau aggregates display the morphology of PHFs isolated from brains of AD patients and are very efficient in recruiting monomeric tau and converting it to de novo generated aggregates, a process referred to as seeding. The assay is highly reproducible, the kinetic curves being virtually indistinguishable between wells, experimental runs and protein batches. Although the current assay focuses only on the longest tau isoform, huTau441, the application can be adapted to study the conversion of other forms of tau (Ameijde et al., Acta Neuropathologica Communications, in press) Furthermore, it enables mechanistic studies focused on the interplay of tau isoforms and possibly shed light on the differences between tau pathogenesis in AD where both 3R and 4R isoforms are present in PHFs and PICK&#39;s disease or Frontotemporal dementia where tau pathology contains mainly 3R and 4R tau isoforms, respectively27.
The very high reproducibility of the assay should allow readers to implement it with relative ease in their specific lab settings. The assay mimics what is believed to be the in vivo misfolding and aggregation of tau, enabling mechanistic studies that will shed light on tau pathogenesis and it constitutes a valuable tool for screening drug candidates and evaluate their interference with the different steps of the pathogenesis process.

Alzheimer&#39;s disease is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder that is histopathologically defined by the accumulation of extracellular senile plaques of aggregated Amyloid beta1 and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles containing aggregated hyperphosphorylated tau protein2. Physiological tau is monomeric and presented as six unique isoforms containing 0-2 N terminal inserts and 3 or 4 microtubule binding domains3,4 arising from alternative splicing and an average of 2-3 phosphorylations. It is believed that hyperphosphorylation, misfolding and self-aggregation into fibrillary structures constitute the key elements in tau pathogenesis, as pathologically assessed in demented individuals5,6.
The aggregated neurofibrillary tau tangles are a hallmark not only for AD but also for other tauopathies, including frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), Pick&#39;s disease, progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), fronto-temporal dementia (FTD) and primary age-related tauopathy (PART)2. From a biochemical point of view, understanding the mechanism of tau misfolding and aggregation could shed light on the pathological processes associated with AD and other tauopathies. In addition to the scientific aspect, robust in vitro aggregation assays are valuable tools for screening of drug candidates7,8,9,10. It is believed that the aggregation of tau follows a nucleation dependent polymerization process (NDP)11,12,13,14. The NDP kinetics is sigmoidal and starts with an energetically unfavorable nucleation step followed by a fast energetically downhill aggregation process.
Unlike other amyloidogenic proteins, including the prion protein, amyloid beta and &#945;-synuclein, tau does not spontaneously aggregate under physiological conditions and even extreme pHs or high temperatures are non-conducive for aggregation15. This is most probably due to the hydrophylic interactions present in the tau aggregation interface. However, tau aggregates efficiently at physiological concentrations when inducers such as heparin16 or other polyanions17,18 are being used.
Previous efforts to set up in vitro tau aggregation assays have shed some light onto the details of tau misfolding and aggregation, but they came short of mimicking what is believed to be the in vivo tau aggregation kinetics. In most cases, the tau aggregation kinetics was lacking the initial lag phase associated with tau nucleation. This might have been the consequence of using very high tau protein concentrations, presence of aggregates in the starting tau protein preparations and/or use of tau fragments with much higher aggregation propensity than the more physiological full length tau protein19,20,21,22,23. Furthermore, previous studies did not address the reproducibility and robustness aspect of tau aggregation kinetics.
Here, we describe a robust in vitro tau aggregation assay which mimics the main characteristics of a nucleation dependent polymerization with an initial lag phase corresponding to the tau nucleation followed by an exponential growth phase. Furthermore, the generated recombinant tau aggregates are fibrillar in nature and have an extremely high seeding potency. The assay is highly reproducible also between tau batches and represents a valuable tool to screen for aggregation inhibitors.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1240px;" width="1239">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:353px;">Thioflavin T</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">T3516-5G</td>
			<td style="width:308px;">dry powder (Mw = 318.86 g/mol)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Heparin&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3393-50KU</td>
			<td>dry powder (Mw = 17-19 kDa)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">TCEP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>75259-1G</td>
			<td>dry powder (MW= 286.65 g/mol)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">PBS</td>
			<td>Gibco-Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10010-015</td>
			<td>Sterile, pH 7.4 (1X)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">0.22 &#956;m sterile filter</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431160</td>
			<td>PES membrane&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">0.20 &#956;m sterile serynge filter</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431229</td>
			<td>PES membrane&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">96-well microplates</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>9502867</td>
			<td>Black, flat botton</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Microplate sealers&#160;</td>
			<td>R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td>DY992</td>
			<td>Adhesive strips&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Synergy Neo2 Multi-Mode Microplate Reader&#160;</td>
			<td>Biotek</td>
			<td>Synergy Neo2</td>
			<td>Hybrid Technology, Gen5 Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Eppendorf Tubes</td>
			<td>Eppendorf&#160;</td>
			<td>0030 120.086</td>
			<td>1,5 ml tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Ultrasonics-Branson SFX250</td>
			<td>Branson</td>
			<td>101-063-966R</td>
			<td>1/2&#34; Solid Horn and 1/8&#34; microtip&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vitro assay for studying the aggregation of tau protein and drug screening

Aggregation of tau protein and formation of paired helical filaments is a hallmark of Alzheimer&#39;s disease and other tauopathies. Compared to other proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases, the reported in vitro aggregation kinetics for tau protein are less consistent presenting a relatively high variability. Here we describe the development of an in vitro aggregation assay that mimics the expected steps associated with tau misfolding and aggregation in vivo. The assay uses the longest tau isoform (huTau441) which contains both N-terminal acidic inserts as well as four microtubule binding domains (MBD). The in vitro aggregation is triggered by addition of heparin and followed continuously by thioflavin T fluorescence in a 96 well microplate format. The tau aggregation assay is highly reproducible between different wells, experimental runs and batches of the protein. The aggregation leads to tau PHF-like morphology which is very efficient in seeding the formation of de novo fibrillar structures. In addition to its application in studying the mechanism of tau misfolding and aggregation, the current assay is a robust tool for screening drugs that could interfere with the pathogenesis of tau.

Recombinant huTau441 containing the C291A and C322A mutations and N-terminal His and C-terminal C-tags was expressed and purified as previously described24. The huTau441 batches are highly pure as visualized on SDS-PAGE and virtually 100% monomeric as assessed by S-MALS (Figure 1). The aggregation of 15 &#181;M huTau441 was induced by the addition of 8 &#181;M HMW heparin and the reaction was followed continuously by ThT fluorescence using a multimode microplate reader. The excitation wavelength was 440 nm (bandwidth 20 nm) whereas emission was measured at 485 nm (bandwidth 20 nm). The assay is highly reproducible, with results from 10 individual wells being virtually indistinguishable (Figure 2A). The morphologies of the ThT positive huTau441 aggregates were assessed after 50 h by AFM. Aggregated hutau441 is a homogeneous mixture of fibrillar structures of different lengths similar to reported ex vivo morphologies (Figure 2B). Furthermore, the final reaction mixture does not contain monomer, suggesting a full conversion into aggregates as shown by S-MALS measurements (Figure 2C). The kinetics of huTau441 aggregation in independent experimental runs are very similar as emphasized by similar sigmoidal curves and indistinguishable lag and growth phases (Figure 3). The high level of reproducibility is maintained when different batches of protein are used (Figure 4). Furthermore, preformed huTau441 aggregates are very efficient in recruiting tau monomer and inducing formation of de novo tau aggregates. Amounts as low as 0.0025% (v/v) of preformed tau aggregates are capable to bypass nucleation and trigger generation of de novo fibrils (Figure 5).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Recombinant huTau441 is monomeric and highly pure. A) Purity assessment under denaturing conditions on a 4-12% SDS-PAGE gel including molecular weight standard protein ladder (in kDA) (Lane 1); flow through from the final C-tag affinity purification step (Lane 2); column wash fraction (Lane 3), eluted huTau441 protein peak, before (Lane 4) and after buffer exchange (Lane 5), respectively). B) S-MALS analysis of the huTau441. Protein shows to be &#62; 99.9% monomeric with a molar mass of 51 kDa and does not contain aggregates or fragments. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Aggregation of recombinant huTau441 is highly reproducible and leads quantitatively to fibrillar structures. A) Kinetics of heparin induced huTau441 aggregation monitored continuously in 96 well microplate format by ThT fluorescence. Concentrations of huTau441 and heparin are 15 &#181;M and 8 &#181;M, respectively. The 10 individual curves correspond to the conversion of the same protein batch in ten wells of the same microplate and are characterized by an average (with SD) lag phase of 14.2 &#177; 0.38 h and t50 of 18.8 &#177; 0.40 h. Kinetic data was fitted with a 5-parameter logistic curve with a linear decline in the upper asymptote. Lag phase and t50 were calculated by interpolation between predicted values by linear regression. Lag phase is calculated based on the 3% increase of ThT fluorescence signal. Curve fitting and summary statistics are obtained using IBM SPSS statistics version 20.0.0.2. B). Tau aggregates show PHF-like morphologies as indicated by AFM imaging at 50 h; C). S-MALS analysis of monomeric huTau441 (t = 0 h) and the supernatant of the reaction mixture at the completion of the reaction (t = 50 h). At the 50 h time point the reaction mixture was centrifuged for 1h at 20,000 X g and 4 &#730;C and the resulted supernatant injected on S-MALS. The disappearance of the monomer peak confirms the complete aggregation of tau. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: The tau aggregation assay shows high reproducibility between independent experimental runs. The two panels display four individual kinetics traces for spontaneous huTau441 aggregation collected in two independent experiments using the same batch of huTau441 protein. Concentrations of huTau441 and heparin are 15 &#181;M and 8 &#181;M, respectively. Kinetics are characterized by an average (with SD) lag phase of 12.2 &#177; 0.18 h and t50 of 17.8 &#177; 0.8 h (Run 1) and 11.6 &#177; 0,52 h and t50 of 17.8 &#177; 0.23 h (Run 2), respectively. Kinetic data was fitted with a 5-parameter logistic curve with a linear decline in the upper asymptote. T50 were calculated by interpolation between predicted values by linear regression. Lag phase is calculated based on the 3% increase of ThT fluorescence signal. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: The tau aggregation assay shows high reproducibility between different batches of huTau441 protein. Each panel shows four replicates corresponding to a specific huTau441 batch. The aggregation of each batch was followed in independent experiments. Concentrations of huTau441 and heparin are 15 &#181;M and 8 &#181;M, respectively. Aggregation kinetics corresponding to the four individual tau batches are characterized by an average (with SD) lag phase of 15.3 &#177; 0.38 h and t50 of 21.1 &#177; 0.46 h (Batch 1); lag phase of 12.5 &#177; 0.07 h and t50 of 19.8 &#177; 0.34 h (Batch 2); lag phase of 15.1 &#177; 0.34 h and t50 of 21.9 &#177; 0.86 h (Batch 3) and lag phase of 11.5 &#177; 0.29 h and t50 of 17.8 &#177; 0.29 h (Batch 4), respectively. Kinetic data was fitted with a 5-parameter logistic curve with a linear decline in the upper asymptote. Lag phase and t50 were calculated by interpolation between predicted values by linear regression. Lag phase is calculated based on the 3% increase of ThT fluorescence signal. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Preformed hutau441 aggregates have high seeding activity. To initiate seeding, sonicated tau aggregates were added to monomer hutau441. From red to blue, each color of the different kinetic curves represents the different amount of added seeds: 1.25%, 0.63%, 0.31%, 0.16%, 0.08%, 0.04%, 0.02%, 0.01%, 0.005% and 0.0025% (v/v), respectively. Spontaneous conversion of hutau441 is represented in black. All conditions were tested in quadruplicate. The four kinetic replicates associated with a certain concentration of seeds are highly reproducible and in most cases indistinguishable. Concentrations of hutau441 and heparin are 15 &#181;M and 8 &#181;M, respectively. The addition of small amounts of pre-formed sonicated fibrillar structures eliminates the initial lag phase observed in the spontaneous conversion and the effect is proportional with the amount of seeds. From red to blue, the difference in t50 observed (t50 spont.conv-t50 seeding) is 18.9, 18.40, 17.8, 17.3, 16.6, 16.1, 15.4, 14.7, 14.2 and 13.7 hours, respectively. Spontaneous conversion of hutau441 is characterized by an average t50 (with SD) of 19.85 &#177; 0.54 h. Kinetic data was fitted with a 5-parameter logistic curve with a linear decline in the upper asymptote. t50 were calculated by interpolation between predicted values by linear regression. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58570/58570fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Assay for Studying the Aggregation of Tau Protein and Drug Screening at JoVE.com

In Vitro Assay for Studying the Aggregation of Tau Protein and Drug Screening

The tau aggregation assay described in this manuscript mimics the anticipated features of in vivo tau misfolding and aggregation.

In Vitro Assay for Studying the Aggregation of Tau Protein and Drug Screening

Aggregation of tau protein and formation of paired helical filaments is a hallmark of Alzheimer&#39;s disease and other tauopathies. Compared to other ...

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18.4K Views.  Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson and Johnson. The tau aggregation assay described in this manuscript mimics the anticipated features of in vivo tau misfolding and aggregation.

Video: In Vitro Assay for Studying the Aggregation of Tau Protein and Drug Screening

A Procedure for Implanting Organized Arrays of Microwires for Single-unit Recordings in Awake, Behaving Animals

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell level. The technique allows experimenters to examine temporally and regionally specific firing patterns in order to correlate recorded action potentials with ongoing behavior. Moreover, single-unit recordings can be combined with a plethora of other techniques in order to produce comprehensive explanations of neural function. In this article, we describe the anesthesia and preparation for microwire implantation. Subsequently, we enumerate the necessary equipment and surgical steps to accurately insert a microwire array into a target structure. Lastly, we briefly describe the equipment used to record from each individual electrode in the array. The fixed microwire arrays described are well-suited for chronic implantation and allow for longitudinal recordings of neural data in almost any behavioral preparation. We discuss tracing electrode tracks to triangulate microwire positions as well as ways to combine microwire implantation with immunohistochemical techniques in order to increase the anatomical specificity of recorded results.

Implanting organized arrays of microwires for use in single-unit electrophysiological recordings presents a number of technical challenges.&#160;Methods for performing this technique and the equipment necessary are described.&#160;Also, the beneficial use of organized microwire arrays to record from distinct neural subregions with high spatial selectivity is discussed.

In vivo electrophysiological recordings in the awake, behaving animal provide a powerful method for understanding neural signaling at the single-cell ...

The Corneal Micropocket Assay: A Model of Angiogenesis in the Mouse Eye

The mouse corneal micropocket assay is a robust and quantitative in vivo assay for evaluating angiogenesis. By using standardized slow-release pellets containing specific growth factors that trigger blood vessel growth throughout the naturally avascular cornea, angiogenesis can be measured and quantified. In this assay the angiogenic response is generated over the course of several days, depending on the type and dose of growth factor used. The induction of neovascularization is commonly triggered by either basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) or vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). By combining these growth factors with sucralfate and hydron (poly-HEMA (poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate))) and casting the mixture into pellets, they can be surgically implanted in the mouse eye. These uniform pellets slowly-release the growth factors over five or six days (bFGF or VEGF respectively) enabling sufficient angiogenic response required for vessel area quantification using a slit lamp. This assay can be used for different applications, including the evaluation of angiogenic modulator drugs or treatments as well as comparison between different genetic backgrounds affecting angiogenesis. A skilled investigator after practicing this assay can implant a pellet in less than 5 min per eye.

The protocol describes the corneal micropocket assay as developed in mice.

The mouse corneal micropocket assay is a robust and quantitative in vivo assay for evaluating angiogenesis. By using standardized slow-release pellets ...

An In Vitro Adult Mouse Muscle-nerve Preparation for Studying the Firing Properties of Muscle Afferents

Muscle sensory neurons innervating muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs encode length and force changes essential to proprioception. Additional afferent fibers monitor other characteristics of the muscle environment, including metabolite buildup, temperature, and nociceptive stimuli. Overall, abnormal activation of sensory neurons can lead to movement disorders or chronic pain syndromes. We describe the isolation of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle and nerve for in vitro study of stretch-evoked afferent responses in the adult mouse. Sensory activity is recorded from the nerve with a suction electrode and individual afferents can be analyzed using spike sorting software. In vitro preparations allow for well controlled studies on sensory afferents without the potential confounds of anesthesia or altered muscle perfusion. Here we describe a protocol to identify and test the response of muscle spindle afferents to stretch. Importantly, this preparation also supports the study of other subtypes of muscle afferents, response properties following drug application and the incorporation of powerful genetic approaches and disease models in mice.

An In Vitro Adult Mouse Muscle-nerve Preparation for Studying the Firing Properties of Muscle Afferents

Muscle sensory neurons are involved in proprioceptor signaling and also report on metabolic state and injury related events. We describe an adult mouse in vitro muscle-nerve preparation for studies on stretch-activated muscle afferents.

Muscle sensory neurons innervating muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs encode length and force changes essential to proprioception. Additional ...

Live Images of GLUT4 Protein Trafficking in Mouse Primary Hypothalamic Neurons Using Deconvolution Microscopy

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues. The hypothalamus in the central nervous system (CNS) is the control center for energy and insulin signal response regulation. Chronic inflammation in peripheral tissues and imbalances of certain chemokines (such as CCL5, TNF&#945;, and IL-6) contribute to diabetes and obesity. However, the functional mechanism(s) connecting chemokines and hypothalamic insulin signal regulation still remain unclear.
In vitro primary neuron culture models are convenient and simple models which can be used to investigate insulin signal regulation in hypothalamic neurons. In this study, we introduced exogeneous GLUT4 protein conjugated with GFP (GFP-GLUT4) into primary hypothalamic neurons to track GLUT4 membrane translocation upon insulin stimulation. Time-lapse images of GFP-GLUT4 protein trafficking were recorded by deconvolution microscopy, which allowed users to generate high-speed, high-resolution images without damaging the neurons significantly while conducting the experiment. The contribution of CCR5 in insulin regulated GLUT4 translocation was observed in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons, which were isolated and cultured from CCR5 knockout mice. Our results demonstrated that the GLUT4 membrane translocation efficiency was reduced in CCR5 deficient hypothalamic neurons after insulin stimulation.

This protocol describes a technique for observation of real-time Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP) tagged Glucose Transporter 4 (GLUT4) protein trafficking upon insulin stimulation and characterization of the biological role of CCR5 in the insulin&#8211;GLUT4 signaling pathway with Deconvolution Microscopy.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a global health crisis which is characterized by insulin signaling impairment and chronic inflammation in peripheral ...

Assay Development for High Content Quantification of Sod1 Mutant Protein Aggregate Formation in Living Cells

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that can be caused by inherited mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1). The structural instability of SOD1 and the detection of SOD1-positive inclusions in familial-ALS patients supports a potential causal role for misfolded and/or aggregated SOD1 in ALS pathology. In this study, we describe the development of a cell-based assay designed to quantify the dynamics of SOD1 aggregation in living cells by high content screening approaches. Using lentiviral vectors, we generated stable cell lines expressing wild-type and mutant A4V SOD1 tagged with yellow fluorescent protein and found that both proteins were expressed in the cytosol without any sign of aggregation. Interestingly, only SOD1 A4V stably expressed in HEK-293, but not in U2OS or SH-SY5Y cell lines, formed aggregates upon proteasome inhibitor treatment. We show that it is possible to quantify aggregation based on dose-response analysis of various proteasome inhibitors, and to track aggregate-formation kinetics by time-lapse microscopy. Our approach introduces the possibility of quantifying the effect of ALS mutations on the role of SOD1 in aggregate formation as well as screening for small molecules that prevent SOD1 A4V aggregation.

We describe a method to quantify the aggregation of misfolded proteins. Our protocol details lentiviral induced stable cell line generation, automated confocal imaging, and image analysis of protein aggregates. As an illustrative application, we studied the effect of small molecules in promoting SOD1 aggregation in a time- and dose-dependent manner.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that can be caused by inherited mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc ...

A Microbiomechanical System for Studying Varicosity Formation and Recovery in Central Neuron Axons

Axonal varicosities are enlarged structures along the shafts of axons with a high degree of heterogeneity. They are present not only in brains with neurodegenerative diseases or injuries, but also in the normal brain. Here, we describe a newly-established micromechanical system to rapidly, reliably, and reversibly induce axonal varicosities, allowing us to understand the mechanisms governing varicosity formation and heterogeneous protein composition. This system represents a novel means to evaluate the effects of compression and shear stress on different subcellular compartments of neurons, different from other in vitro systems that mainly focus on the effect of stretching. Importantly, owing to the unique features of our system, we recently made a novel discovery showing that the application of pressurized fluid can rapidly and reversibly induce axonal varicosities through the activation of a transient receptor potential channel. Our biomechanical system can be utilized conveniently in combination with drug perfusion, live cell imaging, calcium imaging, and patch clamp recording. Therefore, this method can be adopted for studying mechanosensitive ion channels, axonal transport regulation, axonal cytoskeleton dynamics, calcium signaling, and morphological changes related to traumatic brain injury.

This protocol describes a physiologically relevant, pressurized fluid approach for rapid and reversible induction of varicosities in neurons.

Axonal varicosities are enlarged structures along the shafts of axons with a high degree of heterogeneity. They are present not only in brains with ...

Quantitative Autoradiographic Method for Determination of Regional Rates of Cerebral Protein Synthesis In Vivo

Protein synthesis is required for development and maintenance of neuronal function and is involved in adaptive changes in the nervous system. Moreover, it is thought that dysregulation of protein synthesis in the nervous system may be a core phenotype in some developmental disorders. Accurate measurement of rates of cerebral protein synthesis in animal models is important for understanding these disorders. The method that we have developed was designed to be applied to the study of awake, behaving animals. It is a quantitative autoradiographic method, so it can yield rates in all regions of the brain simultaneously. The method is based on the use of a tracer amino acid, L-[1-14C]-leucine, and a kinetic model of the behavior of L-leucine in the brain. We chose L-[1-14C]-leucine as the tracer because it does not lead to extraneous labeled metabolic products. It is either incorporated into protein or rapidly metabolized to yield 14CO2 which is diluted in a large pool of unlabeled CO2 in the brain. The method and the model also allow for the contribution of unlabeled leucine derived from tissue proteolysis to the tissue precursor pool for protein synthesis. The method has the spatial resolution to determine protein synthesis rates in cell and neuropil layers, as well as hypothalamic and cranial nerve nuclei. To obtain reliable and reproducible quantitative data, it is important to adhere to procedural details. Here we present the detailed procedures of the quantitative autoradiographic L-[1-14C]-leucine method for the determination of regional rates of protein synthesis in vivo.

Protein synthesis is&#160;a critical biological process for cells. In brain, it is required for adaptive changes. Measurement of rates of protein synthesis in the intact brain requires careful methodological considerations. Here we present the L-[1-14C]-leucine quantitative autoradiographic method for determination of regional rates of cerebral protein synthesis in vivo.

Protein synthesis is required for development and maintenance of neuronal function and is involved in adaptive changes in the nervous system. Moreover, it ...

Cell-based Assay to Study Antibody-mediated Tau Clearance by Microglia

Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition in which aggregated tau and amyloid proteins accumulate in the brain causing neuronal dysfunction which eventually leads to cognitive decline. Hyperphosphorylated tau aggregates in the neuron are believed to cause most of the pathology associated with AD. These aggregates are assumed to be released into the extracellular compartment and taken up by adjacent healthy neurons where they induce further tau aggregation. This &#34;prion-like&#34; spreading can be interrupted by antibodies capable of binding and &#34;neutralizing&#34; extracellular tau aggregates as shown in preclinical mouse models of AD. One of the proposed mechanisms by which therapeutic antibodies reduce pathology is antibody-mediated uptake and clearance of pathological aggregated forms of tau by microglia. Here, we describe a quantitative cell-based assay to assess tau uptake by microglia. This assay uses the mouse microglial cell line BV-2, allows for high specificity, low variability and medium throughput. Data generated with this assay can contribute to a better characterization of anti-tau antibody effector functions.

Here we describe a cell-based assay to quantitatively assess tau uptake by microglia with the aim of creating an investigational tool to better characterize the mechanisms of action of anti-tau antibodies.

Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition in which aggregated tau and amyloid proteins accumulate in the brain causing ...

An In Vitro Model for Studying Tau Aggregation Using Lentiviral-mediated Transduction of Human Neurons

Aberrant aggregation of the protein tau is pathogenically involved in a number of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (AD). Although mouse models of tauopathy have provided a valuable resource for investigating the neurotoxic mechanisms of aggregated tau, it is becoming increasingly apparent that, due to interspecies differences in neurophysiology, the mouse brain is unsuitable for modeling the human condition. Advances in cell culture methods have made human neuronal cultures accessible for experimental use in vitro and have aided in the development of neurotherapeutics. However, despite the adaptation of human neuronal cell cultures, in vitro models of human tauopathy are not yet widely available. This protocol describes a cellular model of tau aggregation in which human neurons are transduced with lentiviral-derived vectors that code for pathogenically mutated tau fused to a yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) reporter. Transduced cultures produce tau aggregates that stain positively for thioflavin and display markers of neurotoxicity, such as decreased axonal length and increased lysosomal volume. This procedure may be a useful and cost-effective model for studying human tauopathies.

This protocol details a procedure in which human neuronal cultures are transduced with lentiviral constructs coding for mutant human tau. Transduced cultures display tau aggregates and associated pathologies.

Aberrant aggregation of the protein tau is pathogenically involved in a number of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (AD). ...

Measuring Transcellular Interactions through Protein Aggregation in a Heterologous Cell System

Protein interactions at cellular interfaces dictate a multitude of biological outcomes ranging from tissue development and cancer progression to synapse formation and maintenance. Many of these fundamental interactions occur in trans and are typically induced by heterophilic or homophilic interactions between cells expressing membrane anchored binding pairs. Elucidating how disease relevant mutations disrupt these fundamental protein interactions can provide insight into a myriad of cell biology fields. Many protein-protein interaction assays do not typically disambiguate between cis and trans interactions, which potentially leads to an overestimation of the extent of binding that is occurring in vivo and involve labor intensive purification of protein and/or specialized monitoring equipment. Here, we present an optimized simple protocol that allows for the observation and quantification of only trans interactions without the need for lengthy protein purifications or specialized equipment. The HEK cell aggregation assay involves the mixing of two independent populations of HEK cells, each expressing membrane-bound cognate ligands. After a short incubation period, samples are imaged and the resulting aggregates are quantified.

Here, we present an optimized protocol to rapidly and semiquantitatively measure ligand-receptor interactions in trans in a heterologous cell system using fluorescence microscopy.

Protein interactions at cellular interfaces dictate a multitude of biological outcomes ranging from tissue development and cancer progression to synapse ...