We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Niels Olsen Saraiva C&#226;mara from the Animal Center of the Biomedical Sciences Institute of the University of S&#227;o Paulo for the support and Prof. Dr. Silvia Reni Uliana for providing the glass tissue grinder. This work was supported by Sao Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP - MFLS&#39; grant 2017/23933-3).

All experimental procedures were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee at the Institute of Bioscience of the University of S&#227;o Paulo (CEUA 342/2019), and were conducted in accordance with the recommendations and the policies for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of S&#227;o Paulo State (Lei Estadual 11.977, de 25/08/2005) and the Brazilian government (Lei Federal 11.794, de 08/10/2008). All steps described in sections 1-5 should be carried out aseptically inside laminar flow cabinets. Personal protective equipment should be utilized while handling live Leishmania parasites.
1. In Vitro Differentiation of L. amazonensis Promastigotes into Axenic Amastigotes15,20,35,36,37,38
NOTE: L. amazonensis (MHOM/BR/1973/M2269) (La) parasite was used in this assay. Depending on the study purpose, the infective parasite form can be obtained either by purification of the metacyclic form using a density gradient, as previously described14, or by differentiation of promastigotes into axenic amastigotes, according to the following protocol.
<ol>
	<li>Grow La promastigotes in a 25 cm2 cell culture flask containing 10 mL of medium for promastigotes (pro-medium) (pH = 7.0).</li>
	<li>Incubate at 25 &#176;C for 3 days. 
	NOTE: Use promastigote cultures that were passaged in vitro less than 10x to avoid the loss of virulence and aneuploidy changes of parasites39,40,41,42,43,44.</li>
	<li>Pipette 5 mL of logarithmic growth phase promastigote culture into a new 25 cm2 flask.</li>
	<li>Add 5 mL of medium for axenic amastigotes (ama-medium) (pH = 5.2).</li>
	<li>Incubate at 34 &#176;C for 3-4 days.</li>
	<li>Split the culture by diluting with ama-medium at a ratio of 1:3 into a new 25 cm2 flask.</li>
	<li>Incubate at 34 &#176;C for 3-5 days. 
	NOTE: Incubate the axenic amastigotes for up to 5 days, as it represents the end of maturation37.</li>
</ol>
2. C57BL/6 Footpad Infection with L. amazonensis
NOTE: Female C57BL/6 mice (6-8 weeks old) were obtained and maintained at the Animal Center of the Biomedical Sciences Institute of the University of S&#227;o Paulo. Animals received food and water ad libitum.
<ol>
	<li>Count the culture of axenic amastigotes by transferring an aliquot of the parasite suspension diluted in PBS to a Neubauer chamber (i.e., hemocytometer). Count the non-flagellated parasites, which represent amastigotes forms. 
	NOTE: Alternatively, Trypan blue (1:1) can be used for counting the number of viable amastigotes (i.e., those not stained with Trypan blue).</li>
	<li>Dilute the axenic amastigotes in PBS according to the desired inoculum dose and the number of inoculums intended (1 x 106 axenic amastigotes in 50 &#181;L of PBS is recommended).</li>
	<li>Load a tuberculin syringe with a 27 G needle with the prepared parasite suspension.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize a C57BL/6 mouse using 3-5% isoflurane, as recommended by Johns Hopkins University Animal Care and Use Committee45. Assess the anesthetic depth by testing the mouse&#39;s response to a toe pinch.</li>
	<li>Inoculate 50 &#181;L of the homogenized parasite suspension (1 x 106 axenic amastigotes or the desired inoculum dose) in the subplantar tissue of the left hind footpad, using the previously loaded tuberculin syringe (step 2.3).</li>
</ol>
3. Mouse Footpad Lesion Development
<ol>
	<li>Measure the progression of the lesion once a week by measuring the thickness of the left (infected) and the right (noninfected) footpads using a caliper.</li>
	<li>Calculate the difference of the thickness between the left and right hind footpads weekly to evaluate lesion progression.</li>
	<li>Plot the calculated differences on the Y-axis and time of infection on the X-axis and calculate the statistical significance. 
	NOTE: In accordance with the Animal Care and Use Committees&#39; recommendations, animals must be sacrificed before the infected lesion becomes ulcerated, because skin ulcers can lead to secondary infection. As shown in Supplementary Figure 1, it takes approximately 10 weeks for the lesions to present signs of ulceration with the parasite dose (106 axenic amastigotes) and host strain (C57BL/6) used in this protocol. The mice should be sacrificed for lesion extraction before the signs of ulceration are observed.</li>
</ol>
4. Mice Footpad Lesion Extraction and Parasite Limiting Dilution
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 96 well plate (flat bottom) for the limiting dilution assay46,47 by adding 180 &#181;L of pro-medium to all wells. 
	NOTE: Use four plate lanes (half of the plate) for each animal, representing quadruplicate assays (i.e., animal 1 = lanes A-D; animal 2 = lanes E-H).</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of pro-medium in a glass tissue grinder tube per lesion and weigh the tube. 
	NOTE: The tube must be kept sterile, so use a sterile lid and weigh the tube with the closed lid, if weighing outside the laminar flow cabinet.</li>
	<li>Sacrifice the animal in a CO2 chamber, following the Animal Care and Use Committees&#39; recommendations. Disinfect the animal by spraying with 70% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Excise the animal&#39;s foot at it heels to extract the infected footpad and spray 70% ethanol on the footpad for disinfection. Ensure the sterilization of scissors and forceps by keeping them soaked in 70% ethanol.</li>
	<li>Place the infected footpad in a sterile Petri dish and dissect using sterile forceps and a scalpel to collect all soft tissues. Discard the bones. 
	NOTE: Uniformity in the dissection step is recommended to avoid biased tissue recovery.</li>
	<li>Transfer the collected tissues to the glass tissue grinder tube with pro-medium, then weigh the tube again to determine the lesion weight. 
	NOTE: Avoid placing the forceps and scalpel directly into the medium, as small volumes may be removed, resulting in an underestimated tissue weight. The weight of the lesion is calculated by subtracting the weight of the tube containing pro-medium with the collected tissue from the weight of tube containing only pro-medium.</li>
	<li>Homogenize the tissue 10x using the grinder for complete tissue disruption.</li>
	<li>Allow the mixture to sediment for 10 min, then collect 20 &#181;L of the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Load 20 &#181;L of the supernatant in the 1st column of the 1st lane of the 96 well plate prepared in step 4.1. Repeat this for the next three lanes to have quadruplicates for each animal (i.e., for animal 1 add 20 &#181;L to each well and label A1, B1, C1, and D1).</li>
	<li>Homogenize each well in the 1st column 10x using a multichannel pipette. Then, transfer 20 &#181;L of the diluted samples from the 1st column to the 2nd column. 
	NOTE: It is important to homogenize each well 10x from one column to the next.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 4.10 to all remaining columns until the last column (12th) and discard the final 20 &#181;L of diluted sample. 
	NOTE: Change the tips after each dilution to avoid cross-contamination.</li>
	<li>Seal the plates with a film and incubate at 25 &#176;C for 7 days in a humid chamber.</li>
</ol>
5. Lesion Parasite Load Determination
<ol>
	<li>Analyze the plates after 7 days of incubation using an inverted microscope to determine the last parasite-containing well for each lane. 
	NOTE: It is also possible to have an indication of the growth of the parasites, or cell density, by visual analysis of the color changes and turbidity of the medium.</li>
	<li>Calculate the parasite tissue load for each lane by dividing the dilution factor per lesion weight. 
	NOTE: In a specific lane, if parasites are present only in columns 1-5 (i.e., wells A1-A5 are positive for parasite growth), this means that column 5 contained only 1 parasite, column 4 contained 10 parasites, and so on, in multiples of ten. Column 1 would contain 104 parasites, which represents the number of parasites in the initial 20 &#181;L of supernatant (the non-diluted sample in step 4.7). Because this 20 &#181;L was diluted with 180 &#181;L of pro-medium, the initial tube contained 5 x 105 parasites: (1 x 104) / (0.02 mL) = 5 x 105 parasites/1 mL. Then, the parasite load in that lesion can be calculated by dividing the initial concentration of the parasite by the lesion weight: (5 x 105) / lesion weight (see step 4.6).</li>
	<li>Plot the average of the quadruplicated result for each animal with a log Y-scale.</li>
</ol>
6. Statistical Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Represent the data as average &#177; standard deviation using at least five animals per experimental group as replicates.</li>
	<li>Perform statistical analysis using unpaired two-tailed test, considering a p value &#60; 0.05 as significant.</li>
</ol>

The authors declare they have no competing financial interests.

The in vivo infection assay described in this protocol allows any researcher to evaluate in vivo cutaneous leishmaniasis considering the host-parasite interaction in a systemic scenario. These assays have been used by many groups22,24,27,29,31,32,34,49 and ...

Leishmaniases are worldwide prevalent parasitic infectious diseases representing important challenges in developing countries and are recognized as one of the most important neglected tropical diseases by the World Health Organization1,2. The leishmaniases are characterized by cutaneous, mucosal, and/or visceral manifestations. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is usually caused by L. amazonensis, L. mexicana, L. braziliensis, L. guyanensis, L. major, L. tropica and L. aethiopica3. This form of the disease is often self-healing in humans due to the induction of protective cellular immune response. However, the cellular immune response may fail, and the disease can progress to disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis4,5. There is no available vaccine due to the diversity among Leishmania species and host genetic backgrounds6,7. Treatment options are also limited as most of the currently available drugs are either expensive, toxic, and/or may require long-term treatment8,9. Besides, there have been reports of drug resistance against the available treatments10,11.
The causative agent of leishmaniases is the protozoan parasite Leishmania. The parasite presents two distinct morphological forms in its life cycle: promastigotes, the flagellated form found in sandflies; and amastigotes, the intracellular form found in the parasitophorous vacuoles of the mammalian host macrophages12,13. Amastigotes&#39; ability to invade, survive, and replicate despite the defense mechanisms of the vertebrate host&#39;s macrophages are subject to many studies14,15,16,17. Consequently, several research groups have been describing in vitro macrophage infection assays to evaluate the impact of specific environmental factors, as well as parasite and host genes on parasite infectivity. This assay presents several advantages, such as the ability to adapt studies to a high throughput format, relatively shorter time period to obtain results, and reduced number of laboratory animals sacrificed18. However, the findings of in vitro assays are limited because they do not always replicate in vivo studies14,19,20,21. In vivo assays provide a systemic physiological overview of the host-parasite interaction, which cannot be fully mimicked by in vitro assays. For instance, immunological studies can be performed through immunohistochemical assays from collected footpad tissue sections or even from popliteal lymph nodes for analysis of the recovered immune cells22.
Animals are often used as a model for human diseases in biological and biomedical research to better understand the underlying physiological mechanisms of the diseases23. In the case of leishmaniasis, the route, site, or dose of inoculation influence the disease outcome24,25,26,27. Furthermore, susceptibility and resistance to the infection in humans and mice are highly regulated by the genetic backgrounds of the host and parasite4,5,22,28,29,30,31. BALB/c mice are highly susceptible to L. amazonensis cutaneous infection, showing a rapid disease progression with the parasites&#39; dissemination to the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver32. As the disease may progress to cutaneous metastases, the infection can be fatal. In contrast, C57BL/6 mice often develop chronic lesions with persistent parasite loads in L. amazonensis infection assays33. Thereby, L. amazonensis infection with this particular mouse species has been considered an excellent model to study chronic forms of cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans, because it mimics the disease progression better than the BALB/c mice infection model5,34.
Hence, we propose that the murine in vivo infection is a useful method for Leishmania virulence physiological studies applicable to human disease, allowing a systemic view of the host-parasite interaction. Revisiting well-established assays22, we present here a compiled step-by-step protocol of the in vivo infection of C57BL/6 mice with L. amazonensis that comprises the parasite differentiation into axenic amastigotes, mice footpad cutaneous inoculation, lesion development, and parasite load determination. This protocol can be adapted to other mice strains and Leishmania species that cause cutaneous leishmaniases. In conclusion, the method presented here is crucial in identifying new anti-Leishmania drug targets and vaccines, as well as in physiological studies of the host immune and metabolic responses to Leishmania infection.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well plate</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-ne</td>
			<td>655180</td>
			<td>A flat-bottom plate for limiting dilution assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>adenine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A8626</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>caliper</td>
			<td>Mitutoyo</td>
			<td>700-118-20</td>
			<td>A caliper to measure the thickness of footpad</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cell culture flask</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>353014</td>
			<td>A 25 cm2 volume cell culture flask to cultivate Leishmania parasite</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5804R</td>
			<td>An equipament used for separating samples based on its density</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CO2 incubator 34 &#176;C</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>3110</td>
			<td>An incubator for amastigotes differentiation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethanol</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>K50237083820</td>
			<td>A disinfectant for general items</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>12657-029</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glass tissue grinder tube</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>3431 E04</td>
			<td>A tube to collect and disrupt infected footpad tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glucose</td>
			<td>Synth</td>
			<td>G1008.01.AH</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GraphPad Prism Software</td>
			<td>GraphPad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>A software used to plot the data and calculate statistical significance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>hemin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H-2250</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>H5303</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>incubator 25 &#176;C</td>
			<td>Fanem</td>
			<td>347CD</td>
			<td>An incubator for promastigotes cultivation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>TMS</td>
			<td>An equipament used to visual analyze the promastigote and amastigote cultures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>isoflurane</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>An inhalant anesthetics for mice (3-5%)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>laminar flow cabinet</td>
			<td>Veco</td>
			<td>VLFS-09</td>
			<td>A biosafety cabinet used for aseptical work area</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M199 cell culture media</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>31100-035</td>
			<td>A cell culture media for Leishmania cultivation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microcentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Axygen</td>
			<td>MCT150C</td>
			<td>A microtube used for sample collection, processing and storage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>multichanel pipette</td>
			<td>Labsystems</td>
			<td>F61978</td>
			<td>A multichannel pipette used for limiting dilution assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>6329</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S8045</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neubauer chamber</td>
			<td>HBG</td>
			<td>2266</td>
			<td>A hemocytometer to count the parasite suspension</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>optical microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>E200</td>
			<td>An optical equipament used to count parasite</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>parafilm</td>
			<td>Bemis</td>
			<td>349</td>
			<td>A flexible and resistant plastic to seal the plate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140122</td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes</td>
			<td>TPP</td>
			<td>93100</td>
			<td>A sterile dish to dissect the footpad tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pipetman kit</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F167360</td>
			<td>A micropipette kit containing four pipettors (P2 P20 P200 P1000)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>scale</td>
			<td>Quimis</td>
			<td>BG2000</td>
			<td>An equipament used to weigh collected footpad lesions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>scalpel</td>
			<td>Solidor</td>
			<td>10237580026</td>
			<td>A scalpel to cut and collect footpad tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>serological pipette 10 mL</td>
			<td>Nest</td>
			<td>327001</td>
			<td>A sterile pipette used for transfering mililiter volumes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tips</td>
			<td>Axygen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>A pipette tip used for transfering microliter volumes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan blue</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15250-061</td>
			<td>A dye used to count viable parasites</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>trypticase peptone</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Supplement added to M199 cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tuberculin syringe</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305945</td>
			<td>A syringe with 27G needle to inoculate the parasite suspension</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vivo infection with leishmania amazonensis to evaluate parasite virulence in mice

Leishmania spp. are protozoan parasites that cause leishmaniases, diseases that present a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations from cutaneous to visceral lesions. Currently, 12 million people are estimated to be infected with Leishmania worldwide and over 1 billion people live at the risk of infection. Leishmania amazonensis is endemic in Central and South America and usually leads to the cutaneous form of the disease, which can be directly visualized in an animal model. Therefore, L. amazonensis strains are good models for cutaneous leishmaniasis studies because they are also easily cultivated in vitro. C57BL/6 mice mimic the L. amazonensis-driven disease progression observed in humans and are considered one of the best mice strains model for cutaneous leishmaniasis. In the vertebrate host, these parasites inhabit macrophages despite the defense mechanisms of these cells. Several studies use in vitro macrophage infection assays to evaluate the parasite infectivity under different conditions. However, the in vitro approach is limited to an isolated cell system that disregards the organism&#39;s response. Here, we compile an in vivo murine infection method that provides a systemic physiological overview of the host-parasite interaction. The detailed protocol for the in vivo infection of C57BL/6 mice with L. amazonensis comprises parasite differentiation into infective amastigotes, mice footpad cutaneous inoculation, lesion development, and parasite load determination. We propose this well-established method as the most adequate method for physiological studies of the host immune and metabolic responses to cutaneous leishmaniasis.

Leishmania protozoan parasites exist in two developmental forms during their life cycle in invertebrate and vertebrate hosts: promastigotes, the proliferative forms found in the lumen of the female sandfly; and amastigotes, the proliferative forms found in the parasitophorous vacuoles of the mammalian host cells. Promastigotes have an elongated body of approximately 1.5 &#181;m wide and 20 &#181;m long, with a flagellum typically emerging from the anterior extremity. Amastigotes ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Infection with Leishmania amazonensis to Evaluate Parasite Virulence in Mice at JoVE.com

In Vivo Infection with Leishmania amazonensis to Evaluate Parasite Virulence in Mice

Here, we present a compiled protocol to evaluate the cutaneous infection of mice with Leishmania amazonensis. This is a reliable method for studying parasite virulence, allowing a systemic view of the vertebrate host response to the infection.

In Vivo Infection with Leishmania amazonensis to Evaluate Parasite Virulence in Mice

Leishmania spp. are protozoan parasites that cause leishmaniases, diseases that present a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations from cutaneous to ...

in-vivo-infection-with-leishmania-amazonensis-to-evaluate-parasite

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Immunology and Infection

8.1K Views.  University of Sao Paulo. Here, we present a compiled protocol to evaluate the cutaneous infection of mice with Leishmania amazonensis. This is a reliable method for studying parasite virulence, allowing a systemic view of the vertebrate host response to the infection.

Video: In Vivo Infection with Leishmania amazonensis to Evaluate Parasite Virulence in Mice

In vivo Imaging of Transgenic Leishmania Parasites in a Live Host

Distinct species of Leishmania, a protozoan parasite of the family Trypanosomatidae, typically cause different human disease manifestations. The most common forms of disease are visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). Mouse models of leishmaniasis are widely used, but quantification of parasite burdens during murine disease requires mice to be euthanized at various times after infection. Parasite loads are then measured either by microscopy, limiting dilution assay, or qPCR amplification of parasite DNA. The in vivo imaging system (IVIS) has an integrated software package that allows the detection of a bioluminescent signal associated with cells in living organisms. Both to minimize animal usage and to follow infection longitudinally in individuals, in vivo models for imaging Leishmania spp. causing VL or CL were established. Parasites were engineered to express luciferase, and these were introduced into mice either intradermally or intravenously. Quantitative measurements of the luciferase driving bioluminescence of the transgenic Leishmania parasites within the mouse were made using IVIS. Individual mice can be imaged multiple times during longitudinal studies, allowing us to assess the inter-animal variation in the initial experimental parasite inocula, and to assess the multiplication of parasites in mouse tissues. Parasites are detected with high sensitivity in cutaneous locations. Although it is very likely that the signal (photons/second/parasite) is lower in deeper visceral organs than the skin, but quantitative comparisons of signals in superficial versus deep sites have not been done. It is possible that parasite numbers between body sites cannot be directly compared, although parasite loads in the same tissues can be compared between mice. Examples of one visceralizing species (L. infantum chagasi) and one species causing cutaneous leishmaniasis (L. mexicana) are shown. The IVIS procedure can be used for monitoring and analyzing small animal models of a wide variety of Leishmania species causing the different forms of human leishmaniasis.

In vivo Imaging of Transgenic Leishmania Parasites in a Live Host

An in vivo imaging system is used to generate quantitative measurements of murine infection with the Trypanosomatid protozoan Leishmania. This is a non-invasive and non-lethal method for detecting parasites expressing luciferase within many tissues throughout the course of chronic Leishmania spp. infection.

Distinct species of Leishmania, a protozoan parasite of the family Trypanosomatidae, typically cause different human disease manifestations. The most ...

Measurement of &#947;HV68 Infection in Mice

&gamma;-Herpesviruses (&gamma;-HVs) are notable for their ability to establish latent infections of lymphoid cells1. The narrow host range of human &gamma;-HVs, such as EBV and KSHV, has severely hindered detailed pathogenic studies. Murine &gamma;-herpesvirus 68 (&gamma;HV68) shares extensive genetic and biological similarities with human &gamma;-HVs and is a natural pathogen of murid rodents2. As such, evaluation of &gamma;HV68 infection of mice inbred strains at different stages of viral infection provides an important model for understanding viral lifecycle and pathogenesis during &gamma;-HVs infection.
Upon intranasal inoculation, &gamma;HV68 infection results in acute viremia in the lung that is later resolved into a latent infection of splenocytes and other cells, which may be reactivated throughout the life of the host3,4. In this protocol, we will describe how to use the plaque assay to assess infectious virus titer in the lung homogenates on Vero cell monolayers at the early stage (5 - 7 days) of post-intranasal infection (dpi). While acute infection is largely cleared 2 - 3 weeks postinfection, a latent infection of &gamma;HV68 is established around 14 dpi and maintained later on in the spleen of the mice. Latent infection usually affects a very small population of cells in the infected tissues, whereby the virus stays dormant and shuts off most of its gene expression. Latently-infected splenocytes spontaneously reactivate virus upon explanting into tissue culture, which can be recapitulated by an infectious center (IC) assay to determine the viral latent load. To further estimate the amount of viral genome copies in the acutely and/or latently infected tissues, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) is used for its maximal sensitivity and accuracy. The combined analyses of the results of qPCR and plaque assay, and/or IC assay will reveal the spatiotemporal profiles of viral replication and infectivity in vivo.

Measurement of &amp;#947;HV68 Infection in Mice

&#947;-Herpesviruses (&#947;-HVs) establish life-long persistency in their host. Infection of mice with &#947;-HV68 provides a genetically tractable in vivo model for the characterization of the lifecycle/pathogenesis of &#947;HVs. This protocol describes the detection and quantitation of &#947;HV68 infection at acute and latent stages following infection by plaque-forming, infectious center, and qPCR assays.

&gamma;-Herpesviruses (&gamma;-HVs) are notable for their ability to establish latent infections of lymphoid cells1. The narrow host range of human ...

Use of Artificial Sputum Medium to Test Antibiotic Efficacy Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Conditions More Relevant to the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

There is growing concern about the relevance of in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility tests when applied to isolates of P. aeruginosa from cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Existing methods rely on single or a few isolates grown aerobically and planktonically. Predetermined cut-offs are used to define whether the bacteria are sensitive or resistant to any given antibiotic1. However, during chronic lung infections in CF, P. aeruginosa populations exist in biofilms and there is evidence that the environment is largely microaerophilic2. The stark difference in conditions between bacteria in the lung and those during diagnostic testing has called into question the reliability and even relevance of these tests3.
 Artificial sputum medium (ASM) is a culture medium containing the components of CF patient sputum, including amino acids, mucin and free DNA. P. aeruginosa growth in ASM mimics growth during CF infections, with the formation of self-aggregating biofilm structures and population divergence4,5,6. The aim of this study was to develop a microtitre-plate assay to study antimicrobial susceptibility of P. aeruginosa based on growth in ASM, which is applicable to both microaerophilic and aerobic conditions.
 An ASM assay was developed in a microtitre plate format. P. aeruginosa biofilms were allowed to develop for 3 days prior to incubation with antimicrobial agents at different concentrations for 24 hours. After biofilm disruption, cell viability was measured by staining with resazurin. This assay was used to ascertain the sessile cell minimum inhibitory concentration (SMIC) of tobramycin for 15 different P. aeruginosa isolates under aerobic and microaerophilic conditions and SMIC values were compared to those obtained with standard broth growth. Whilst there was some evidence for increased MIC values for isolates grown in ASM when compared to their planktonic counterparts, the biggest differences were found with bacteria tested in microaerophilic conditions, which showed a much increased resistance up to a &gt;128 fold, towards tobramycin in the ASM system when compared to assays carried out in aerobic conditions.
 The lack of association between current susceptibility testing methods and clinical outcome has questioned the validity of current methods3. Several in vitro models have been used previously to study P. aeruginosa biofilms7, 8. However, these methods rely on surface attached biofilms, whereas the ASM biofilms resemble those observed in the CF lung9 . In addition, reduced oxygen concentration in the mucus has been shown to alter the behavior of P. aeruginosa2 and affect antibiotic susceptibility10. Therefore using ASM under microaerophilic conditions may provide a more realistic environment in which to study antimicrobial susceptibility.

Use of Artificial Sputum Medium to Test Antibiotic Efficacy Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Conditions More Relevant to the Cystic Fibrosis Lung

Current diagnostic antimicrobial susceptibility testing relies on the planktonic growth of isolates in nutrient rich, aerobic conditions. Here, we employ an alternative artificial sputum medium to study antimicrobial susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms under both aerobic and microaerophilic conditions more representative of the cystic fibrosis lung.

There  is growing concern about the relevance of in vitro antimicrobial  susceptibility tests when applied to isolates of P. aeruginosa from  cystic ...

A Parasite Rescue and Transformation Assay for Antileishmanial Screening Against Intracellular Leishmania donovani Amastigotes in THP1 Human Acute Monocytic Leukemia Cell Line

Leishmaniasis is one of the world's most neglected diseases, largely affecting the poorest of the poor, mainly in developing countries. Over 350 million people are considered at risk of contracting leishmaniasis, and approximately 2 million new cases occur yearly1. Leishmania donovani is the causative agent for visceral leishmaniasis (VL), the most fatal form of the disease. The choice of drugs available to treat leishmaniasis is limited 2;current treatments provide limited efficacy and many are toxic at therapeutic doses. In addition, most of the first line treatment drugs have already lost their utility due to increasing multiple drug resistance 3. The current pipeline of anti-leishmanial drugs is also severely depleted. Sustained efforts are needed to enrich a new anti-leishmanial drug discovery pipeline, and this endeavor relies on the availability of suitable in vitro screening models.
In vitro promastigotes 4 and axenic amastigotes assays5 are primarily used for anti-leishmanial drug screening however, may not be appropriate due to significant cellular, physiological, biochemical and molecular differences in comparison to intracellular amastigotes. Assays with macrophage-amastigotes models are considered closest to the pathophysiological conditions of leishmaniasis, and are therefore the most appropriate for in vitro screening. Differentiated, non-dividing human acute monocytic leukemia cells (THP1) (make an attractive) alternative to isolated primary macrophages and can be used for assaying anti-leishmanial activity of different compounds against intracellular amastigotes.
Here, we present a parasite-rescue and transformation assay with differentiated THP1 cells infected in vitro with Leishmania donovani for screening pure compounds and natural products extracts and determining the efficacy against the intracellular Leishmania amastigotes. The assay involves the following steps: (1) differentiation of THP1 cells to non-dividing macrophages, (2) infection of macrophages with L. donovani metacyclic promastigotes, (3) treatment of infected cells with test drugs, (4) controlled lysis of infected macrophages, (5) release/rescue of amastigotes and (6) transformation of live amastigotes to promastigotes. The assay was optimized using detergent treatment for controlled lysis of Leishmania-infected THP1 cells to achieve almost complete rescue of viable intracellular amastigotes with minimal effect on their ability to transform to promastigotes. Different macrophage:promastigotes ratios were tested to achieve maximum infection. Quantification of the infection was performed through transformation of live, rescued Leishmania amastigotes to promastigotes and evaluation of their growth by an alamarBlue fluorometric assay in 96-well microplates. This assay is comparable to the currently-used microscopic, transgenic reporter gene and digital-image analysis assays. This assay is robust and measures only the live intracellular amastigotes compared to reporter gene and image analysis assays, which may not differentiate between live and dead amastigotes. Also, the assay has been validated with a current panel of anti-leishmanial drugs and has been successfully applied to large-scale screening of pure compounds and a library of natural products fractions (Tekwani et al. unpublished).

A Parasite Rescue and Transformation Assay for Antileishmanial Screening Against Intracellular Leishmania donovani Amastigotes in THP1 Human Acute Monocytic Leukemia Cell Line

A parasite-rescue and transformation assay with THP1 cells infected in vitro with Leishmania donovani has been optimized for anti-leishmanial drug screening. The assay involves differentiation of THP1 cells, infection with promastigotes, treatment with test drugs, controlled lysis of the infected macrophages, rescue of amastigotes, transformation to promastigotes and monitoring promastigote growth and proliferation with a fluorometric assay.

Leishmaniasis is  one of the world's most neglected diseases, largely affecting the  poorest of the poor, mainly in developing countries. Over 350 million ...

The Utilization of Oropharyngeal Intratracheal PAMP Administration and Bronchoalveolar Lavage to Evaluate the Host Immune Response in Mice

The host immune response to pathogens is a complex biological process. The majority of in vivo studies classically employed to characterize host-pathogen interactions take advantage of intraperitoneal injections of select bacteria or pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) in mice. While these techniques have yielded tremendous data associated with infectious disease pathobiology, intraperitoneal injection models are not always appropriate for host-pathogen interaction studies in the lung. Utilizing an acute lung inflammation model in mice, it is possible to conduct a high resolution analysis of the host innate immune response utilizing lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here, we describe the methods to administer LPS using nonsurgical oropharyngeal intratracheal administration, monitor clinical parameters associated with disease pathogenesis, and utilize bronchoalveolar lavage fluid to evaluate the host immune response. The techniques that are described are widely applicable for studying the host innate immune response to a diverse range of PAMPs and pathogens. Likewise, with minor modifications, these techniques can also be applied in studies evaluating allergic airway inflammation and in pharmacological applications.

The host immune response to pathogen infection is a tightly regulated process. Utilizing a lipopolysaccharide lung exposure model in mice, it is possible to conduct high resolution evaluations of the complex mechanisms associated with disease pathogenesis.

The host immune response to pathogens is a complex biological process. The majority of in vivo studies classically employed to characterize host-pathogen ...

Neutrophil Isolation and Analysis to Determine their Role in Lymphoma Cell Sensitivity to Therapeutic Agents

Neutrophils are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white blood cells and among the first inflammatory cells to migrate towards the site of inflammation. They are key players in the innate immune system and play major roles in cancer biology. Neutrophils have been proposed as key mediators of malignant transformation, tumor progression, angiogenesis and in the modulation of the antitumor immunity; through their release of soluble factors or their interaction with tumor cells. To characterize the specific functions of neutrophils, a fast and reliable method is coveted for in vitro isolation of neutrophils from human blood. Here, a density gradient separation method is demonstrated to isolate neutrophils as well as mononuclear cells from the blood. The procedure consists of layering the density gradient solution such as Ficoll carefully above the diluted blood obtained from patients diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), followed by centrifugation, isolation of mononuclear layer, separation of neutrophils from RBCsby dextran then lysis of residual erythrocytes. This method has been shown to isolate neutrophils &#8805; 90 % pure. To mimic the tumor microenvironment, 3-dimensional (3D) experiments were performed using basement membrane matrix such as Matrigel. Given the short half-life of neutrophils in vitro, 3D experiments with fresh human neutrophils cannot be performed. For this reason promyelocytic HL60 cells are differentiated along the granulocytic pathway using the differentiation inducers dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and retinoic acid (RA). The aim of our experiments is to study the role of neutrophils on the sensitivity of lymphoma cells to anti-lymphoma agents. However these methods can be generalized to study the interactions of neutrophils or neutrophil-like cells with a large range of cell types in different situations.

Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells. The isolation of neutrophils from human blood by density gradient separation method and the differentiation of human promyelocytic (HL60) cells along the granulocytic pathway are described here; to test their role on sensitivity of lymphoma cells to anti-lymphoma agents.

Neutrophils are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white blood cells and among the first inflammatory cells to migrate towards the site of ...

Quantification of Intracellular Growth Inside Macrophages is a Fast and Reliable Method for Assessing the Virulence of Leishmania Parasites

The lifecycle of Leishmania, the causative agent of leishmaniasis, alternates between promastigote and amastigote stages inside the insect and vertebrate hosts, respectively. While pathogenic symptoms of leishmaniasis can vary widely, from benign cutaneous lesions to highly fatal visceral disease forms depending on the infective species, all Leishmania species reside inside host macrophages during the vertebrate stage of their lifecycle. Leishmania infectivity is therefore directly related to its ability to invade, survive and replicate within parasitophorous vacuoles (PVs) inside macrophages. Thus, assessing the parasite&#39;s ability to replicate intracellularly serves as a dependable method for determining virulence. Studying leishmaniasis development using animal models is time-consuming, tedious and often difficult, particularly with the pathogenically important visceral forms. We describe here a methodology to follow the intracellular development of Leishmania in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs). Intracellular parasite numbers are determined at 24 h intervals for 72 - 96 h following infection. This method allows for a reliable determination of the effects of various genetic factors on Leishmania virulence. As an example, we show how a single allele deletion of the Leishmania Mitochondrial Iron Transporter gene (LMIT1) impairs the ability of the Leishmania amazonensis mutant strain LMIT1/&#916;Lmit1 to grow inside BMMs, reflecting a drastic reduction in virulence compared to wild-type. This assay also allows precise control of experimental conditions, which can be individually manipulated to analyze the influence of various factors (nutrients, reactive oxygen species, etc.) on the host-pathogen interaction. Therefore, the appropriate execution and quantification of BMM infection studies provide a non-invasive, rapid, economical, safe and reliable alternative to conventional animal model studies.

Quantification of Intracellular Growth Inside Macrophages is a Fast and Reliable Method for Assessing the Virulence of Leishmania Parasites

All pathogenic Leishmania species reside and replicate inside macrophages of their vertebrate hosts. Here, we present a protocol to infect murine bone marrow-derived macrophages in culture with Leishmania, followed by precise quantification of intracellular growth kinetics. This method is useful for studying individual factors influencing host-pathogen interaction and Leishmania virulence.

The lifecycle of Leishmania, the causative agent of leishmaniasis, alternates between promastigote and amastigote stages inside the insect and vertebrate ...

Evaluating Virulence and Pathogenesis of Aeromonas Infection in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model

The human pathogen Aeromonas has been clinically shown to cause gastroenteritis, wound infections, septicemia, and urinary tract infections. Most human diseases have been reported to be associated with four species of bacteria: Aeromonas dhakensis, Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas veronii, and Aeromonas caviae. The model organism Caenorhabditis elegans is a bacterivore that provides an excellent infection model by which to study the bacterial pathogenesis of Aeromonas. Here, we introduce three different experiments to study Aeromonas infection using a C. elegans model, including survival, liquid toxicity, and muscle necrosis assays. The results of the three methods determining the virulence of Aeromonas were consistent. A. dhakensis was shown to be the most toxic among the 4 major Aeromonas species causing clinical infections. These methods are shown to be a convenient way to evaluate the toxicity among and within Aeromonas species and contribute to our understanding of the pathogenesis of Aeromonas infection.

Evaluating Virulence and Pathogenesis of Aeromonas Infection in a Caenorhabditis elegans Model

Here, we introduce three different experiments to study Aeromonas infection in C. elegans. Using these convenient methods, it is easy to evaluate the toxicity among and within Aeromonas species.

The human pathogen Aeromonas has been clinically shown to cause gastroenteritis, wound infections, septicemia, and urinary tract infections. Most human ...

Precise Brain Mapping to Perform Repetitive In Vivo Imaging of Neuro-Immune Dynamics in Mice

The central nervous system (CNS) is regulated by a complex interplay of neuronal, glial, stromal, and vascular cells that facilitate its proper function. Although studying these cells in isolation in vitro or together ex vivo provides useful physiological information; salient features of neural cell physiology will be missed in such contexts. Therefore, there is a need for studying neural cells in their native in vivo environment. The protocol detailed here describes repetitive in vivo two-photon imaging of neural cells in the rodent cortex as a tool to visualize and study specific cells over extended periods of time from hours to months. We describe in detail the use of the grossly stable brain vasculature as a coarse map or fluorescently labeled dendrites as a fine map of select brain regions of interest. Using these maps as a visual key, we show how neural cells can be precisely relocated for subsequent repetitive in vivo imaging. Using examples of in vivo imaging of fluorescently-labeled microglia, neurons, and NG2+ cells, this protocol demonstrates the ability of this technique to allow repetitive visualization of cellular dynamics in the same brain location over extended time periods, that can further aid in understanding the structural and functional responses of these cells in normal physiology or following pathological insults. Where necessary, this approach can be coupled to functional imaging of neural cells, e.g., with calcium imaging. This approach is especially a powerful technique to visualize the physical interaction between different cell types of the CNS in vivo when genetic mouse models or specific dyes with distinct fluorescent tags to label the cells of interest are available.

This protocol describes a chronic cranial window implantation technique that can be used for longitudinal imaging of neuro-glio-vascular structures, interactions, and function in both healthy and diseased conditions. It serves as a complementary alternative to the transcranial imaging approach that, while often preferred, possesses some critical limitations.

The central nervous system (CNS) is regulated by a complex interplay of neuronal, glial, stromal, and vascular cells that facilitate its proper function. ...

An Ex vivo Assay to Study Candida albicans Hyphal Morphogenesis in the Gastrointestinal Tract

Candida albicans hyphal morphogenesis in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is tightly controlled by various environmental signals, and plays an important role in the dissemination and pathogenesis of this opportunistic fungal pathogen. However, methods to visualize fungal hyphae in the GI tract in vivo are challenging which limits the understanding of environmental signals in controlling this morphogenesis process. The protocol described here demonstrates a novel ex vivo method for visualization of hyphal morphogenesis in gut homogenate extracts. Using an ex vivo assay, this study demonstrates that cecal contents from antibiotic treated mice, but not from untreated control mice, promote C. albicans hyphal morphogenesis in the gut content. Further, adding back specific groups of gut metabolites to the cecal contents from antibiotic-treated mice differentially regulates hyphal morphogenesis ex vivo. Taken together, this protocol represents a novel method to identify and investigate the environmental signals that control C. albicans hyphal morphogenesis in the GI tract.

An Ex vivo Assay to Study Candida albicans Hyphal Morphogenesis in the Gastrointestinal Tract

The ex vivo assay described in this study using gut homogenate extracts and immunofluorescence staining represents a novel method to examine the hyphal morphogenesis of Candida albicans in the GI tract. This method can be utilized to investigate the environmental signals regulating morphogenetic transition in the gut.

Candida albicans hyphal morphogenesis in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is tightly controlled by various environmental signals, and plays an important ...