This work was supported in part by funding from a DARPA Safe Genes Program Grant (HR0011-17-2-0047), and NIH awards (R21RAI149161A, DP2AI152071) awarded to O.S.A.

<ol>
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O.S.A is a founder of Agragene, Inc., has an equity interest, and serves on the company's Scientific Advisory Board. The terms of this arrangement have been reviewed and approved by the University of California, San Diego in accordance with its conflict-of-interest policies. All other authors declare no competing interests.

With three different application designs of the CasRx system, this work demonstrated&#160;in vivoprogrammable RNA targeting in flies. The different strategies cater to different project needs, such as endogenous versus exogenous gene targeting and ubiquitous versus tissue-specific RNA targeting. The effects of RNA targeting included target gene specific phenotypic changes, target RNA transcript reduction, and occasional lethality phenotypes associated with high expression of CasRx protein and collateral activity. Overall, these results showed that the CasRx system is capable of target RNA transcript reduction at the organismal level in a programmable and efficient manner.
One of the key factors in successful customizing of the CasRx system is the design of gRNAs. Specifically, the following advice shall be heeded: the target sequence is around 30 nucleotides in length, the length of poly-U stretches in the target sequence is 4 base pairs or less, the target sequence GC content is in the range of 30% - 70%, the target sequence is not predicted to form strong RNA hairpin structures, and the target sequence contains minimal predicted RNA secondary or tertiary structure5.
In addition to the gRNA designs, the fly genetics step in each protocol is also critical in a successful implementation. The presence or lack of the defined phenotypes passed down from the parents in the progenies are important for identifying and quantifying phenotypes induced by the CasRx system in the transheterozygous progenies. Also, setting up control crosses using the dCasRx flies in parallel are also helpful in the ruling out non-specific phenotypes in the transheterozygous progenies.
It is worth noting that these results revealed toxicity issue introduced by ubiquitously expressing CasRx and dCasRx protein in the fly, a limitation of CasRx system. Ubiquitous expression of CasRx or dCasRx under the Ubiq promotor alone, without gRNAs, came with nontrivial fitness costs, as neither Ubiq-CasRx nor Ubiq-dCasRx flies could be established as homozygous lines. On the contrary, UASt-CasRx and UASt-dCasRx flies can be established as healthy homozygous stocks, though due to the design of the cross scheme they were kept as double-balanced stocks, a fact that supports the existence of toxicity induced by ubiquitous CasRx protein expression. Another piece of supporting evidence is that in control experiments involving dCasRx, which is catalytically inactive, the percentages of flies carrying both dCasRx and gRNA constructs out of the total number of flies in the F1 generation were consistently lower than 50%, the ratio expected based on Mendelian genetics if no dCasRx-associated toxicity was present. This indicated that ubiquitously expressing dCasRx, along with gRNAs, induces toxicity in the fly, resulting less than expected inheritance ratio. The inheritance ratios of transheterozygous UASt-dCasRx, gRNA, GAL4 flies followed Mendelian genetics, which again suggests the toxicity induced specifically by ubiquitous expression of CasRx and dCasRx proteins. Toxicity in CRISPR/Cas system is not new. High amounts of Cas9 protein has been shown to be toxic in several organisms, including flies29,30,31,32. A recent study has developed a customized GAL4/UAS system that can tune the amount of Cas9 protein expressed in flies by adding an open-reading frame of varying length between the UAS sequence and the Cas9 sequence in the UAS-Cas9 construct33. Therefore, it is worth exploring ways to reduce CasRx-induced toxicity by tuning the CasRx protein expression level.
Other than the toxicity induced by ubiquitous expression of CasRx and dCasRx proteins, the results also showed lethality linked to CasRx system&#39;s non-specific collateral off-target effects, a feature of many CRISPR systems1, 2, 7, 34. In some of the CasRx and non-essential gene gRNA-expressing double or triple transheterozygous flies, for example when targeting Notch, the transheterozygous CasRx flies have significantly lower levels of survival rate compared to the transheterozgyous dCasRx flies. In the RNA-seq analysis of these CasRx and gRNA-expressing transheterozygous flies, both the reduction of target gene transcript levels and the reduction of non-target gene transcripts were observed. These collateral effects were CasRx-dependent and target-dependent, as they were only observed in transheterozygous flies expressing both the CasRx protein and the gRNA. It is worth pointing out that one of the target genes, white, showed only a limited, non-statistically significant reduction in transcripts when the white gene was targeted by CasRx, which was in contrast to the clear pigment reduction phenotype. It is hypothesized that this may be due to the fact that 1) the timing of RNA-seq sample collection was not well aligned with the timing when the white gene reach its peak expression during early development, and 2) the localized expression of the white gene in the eyes makes it challenging to collect the relevant tissues during early development phase when only whole-body sample collection is feasible. To reduce collateral activity in the CasRx system, future studies are called for to fully understand the mechanisms underlying the off-target phenomenon system at the organismal level.
Interestingly, a recent study35 describing RNA-targeting Cas13 tools in flies appeared to ameliorate the general toxicity associated with CasRx expression, for several possible reasons. Firstly, the authors recoded the Cas13 transgenes to optimize expression in Drosophila and utilized a more weakly-expressing promoter (actin 5C) as compared to the ubiquitin promoter used in the present study, likely leading to lower levels of Cas13 expression and thus less toxicity. Indeed, this is supported by the observations that UASt-driven CasRx and dCasRx expression was not, by itself, toxic, as this study (and the authors in 35) did not observe any obvious lethality in UASt-CasRx flies. Furthermore, these authors encoded their gRNAs differently compared to this study, which may have affected their expression and reduced the toxicity of the system in transheterozygous Cas13/gRNA flies. For example, in their study two gRNAs were expressed using the U6:3 promoter and flanked by tRNAs to enable gRNA processing upon tRNA maturation without requiring CasRx35. Conversely, in this study, the gRNAs were encoded as arrays targeting up to 4 locations per gene and mimicking the endogenous Cas13 array structure found in bacteria, which requires the Cas13 enzyme to process each gRNA. These different approaches may have led to differences in gRNA expression levels and other factors that may have inherent effects on the toxicity of the whole system. Finally, Huynh et al. targeted different genes than those targeted in the present study, which result in differences in target-Cas/gRNA interaction and collateral activity and may have effects on the observed levels of lethality. These differences in observed toxicity warrant further investigation to identify ways that the overall systems can be improved.
Overall, this study is the first demonstration of a functional genetically encoded programmable RNA-targeting Cas system in D. melanogaster, albeit further optimization of the CasRx system (in line with what is reported35) will be required to further reduce the off-target-associated lethality and increase the efficacy of CasRx on-target cleavage. RNA-targeting with Cas enzymes is a rapidly evolving field with many potential applications ranging from insect vector control to therapeutic usages1,2,3,4,5,6,7, and this protocol offer a starter package for anyone interested in designing their first CasRx system in flies, while being compatible with customization and further optimization of the system. The examples presented here demonstrate a range of results one may encounter during implementation of this system in vivo and may serve as benchmarks for other users in evaluating the performance of CasRx system in their applications.

Since the advent of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) technologies, much of the focus in this field has been on DNA editing, which offers transformative applications in medicine and biotechnology1. Permanent alteration of DNA sequences, however, is not always desired due to ethical considerations. In light of this, recent studies began developing CRISPR-based tools for targeting RNA and demonstrated that CRISPR technologies can indeed be used for RNA-targeting in a variety of biological systems2,3,4,5,6,7. In many of these systems tested, the current widely used approach for targeting RNA and transcript reduction is RNA interference (RNAi), which is far from perfect, often exhibiting varied efficacy and high off-target activity when used in vivo8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17. Therefore, given the status of these technologies, it is worth further exploring the potentials of CRISPR-based tools for RNA targeting.
One notable recent study reported that ribonuclease CasRx, a member of the Cas13d class, can efficiently reduce gene transcript levels in human cell culture and possesses an attractive off-target profile4. This finding led to the question of whether this new ribonuclease can maintain its efficacy and low off-target rate for RNA targeting at the organismal level. A recent study addressed this question by showing that the CasRx system can be used to achieve ubiquitous and tissue-specific gene transcript reduction in Drosophila melanogaster5.
To streamline usability of this recently published approach, this protocol details the methods from this recent work, which consists of three main parts: 1) ubiquitous in vivo&#160;RNA targeting using a two-component CasRx system; 2) ubiquitous in vivo exogenous RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system; and 3) tissue-specificin vivo RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system.
Guide RNAs (gRNA) targeting different target genes under the control of a ubiquitous promoter were designed and fly lines expressing these gRNA-containing constructs were generated. CasRx constructs under the control of either a ubiquitous promoter, or a conditional upstream activation sequence (UASt) promoter activatable by the GAL4 transcription factor, were also designed and fly lines harboring these CasRx-containing constructs generated. Catalytically inactive CasRx constructs, dCasRx, were designed and used as negative controls. Ubiquitous RNA targeting in flies is achieved by crossing gRNA-expressing fly lines with ubiquitously CasRx-expressing fly lines. The progeny expressing both the gRNA construct targeting a specific gene transcript and the CasRx protein has a ubiquitous reduction of targeted gene transcripts. Tissue-specific RNA targeting in flies is achieved by first crossing gRNA-expressing flies with UASt-CasRx expressing flies, obtaining transheterozygous flies carrying both gRNA and UASt-CasRx constructs. Such flies in turn are crossed with tissue-specific GAL4-expressing flies, resulting in the generation of tissue-specific CasRx expression and RNA-targeting in flies.
The programmable nature of the CasRx system offers the possibility of customization and optimization to help achieve high efficacy and low off-target activity for in vivo RNA targeting. Potential applications of CRISPR-based RNA-targeting are numerous, including replacing RNAi in the laboratory and contributing to insect vector control in the wild. Of the latter, one of the global unmet needs is the development of efficient tools to combat infections of RNA viruses transmitted via mosquitos. Many RNA viruses, such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya virus, are transmitted via mosquitoes, affecting human health, and contributing mortality. Many proposals for engineering mosquito populations with virus resistance for disease prevention have been made; however, no current technology is able to make mosquitoes simultaneously resistant to all significant RNA viruses18,19,20,21,22,23. RNA-targeting Cas systems may provide a starting point for such a technology by enabling a programmable platform for targeting all mosquito-borne RNA viruses.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>100% Grape Juice</td>
			<td>Welch Foods Inc.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Active Dry Yeast (908g)</td>
			<td>Red Star Yeast Company, LLC</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMC4500 color camera</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>DMC4500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>E1910</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GAL4-GMR flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>29967</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GAL4-y flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>44373</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glomax 20/20 Luminometer</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>E5331</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illumina HiSeq2500 Sequencer</td>
			<td>Illumina, Inc.</td>
			<td>HiSeq2500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M165FC fluorescent stereomicroscope</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>M165FC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanodrop OneC UV-vis spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>NDONEC-W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEBNext Ultra II RNA Library Prep Kit</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs, Inc.</td>
			<td>E7770</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 112686</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>112686</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 112688</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>112688</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132416</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132416</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132417</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132417</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132419</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132419</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132420</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132420</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132421</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132421</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132422</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132422</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132425</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132425</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 132426</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132426</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 133304</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>133304</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid # 164586</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>164586</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid #132418</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>132418</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pJFRC81</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>36432</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qiagen RNeasy Mini Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>74104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction endonucleases AscI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs Inc.</td>
			<td>R0558L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction endonucleases NotI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs Inc.</td>
			<td>R0189L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction endonucleases PacI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs Inc.</td>
			<td>R0547L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction endonucleases PstI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs Inc.</td>
			<td>R0140L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction endonucleases SwaI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs Inc.</td>
			<td>R0604L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction endonucleases XbaI</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs Inc.</td>
			<td>R0145L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNA 6000 Pico Kit for Bioanalyzer</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-1513</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Turbo DNase</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>AM2238</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U6-3:4-gRNA-Fluc flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U6-3:4-gRNA-GFP; OpIE2-GFP flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84986</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U6-3:4-gRNA-N flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U6-3:4-gRNA-w flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U6-3:4-gRNA-y flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84123</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UASt-CasRx flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84121</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UASt-dCasRx flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ubiq-CasRx flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84118</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ubiq-dCasRx flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84119</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ubiq-Firefly-T2A-eGFP-Ubiq-Renilla flies</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>84127</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zymoclean Gel DNA Recovery Kits</td>
			<td>Zymo Research Corporation</td>
			<td>D4007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

ubiquitous and tissue-specific rna targeting in drosophila melanogaster using crispr/casrx

CasRx, a member of the RNA-targeting Cas13 family, is a promising new addition of the CRISPR/Cas technologies in efficient gene transcript reduction with an attractive off-target profile at both cellular and organismal levels. It is recently reported that the CRISPR/CasRx system can be used to achieve ubiquitous and tissue-specific gene transcript reduction in Drosophila melanogaster. This paper details the methods from the recent work, consisting of three parts: 1) ubiquitous&#160;in vivo endogenous RNA targeting using a two-component CasRx system; 2) ubiquitous in vivo exogenous RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system; and 3) tissue-specific in vivo RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system. The effects of RNA targeting observed include targeted gene specific phenotypic changes, targeted RNA transcript reduction, and occasional lethality phenotypes associated with high expression of CasRx protein and collateral activity. Overall, these results showed that the CasRx system is capable of target RNA transcript reduction at the organismal level in a programmable and efficient manner, demonstrating that in vivo transcriptome targeting, and engineering is feasible and lays the foundation for future in vivo CRISPR-based RNA targeting technologies.

Ubiquitous in vivo RNA Targeting Using a Two-Component CasRx System 
The F1 transheterozygous flies expressing both the Ubiq-CasRx and the gRNA (targeting both endogenous and exogenous genes) constructs showed marked phenotypes compared to the control flies expressing the Ubiq-dCasRx and gRNA constructs (Figure 2 and Figure 4). Specifically, the transheterozygous CasRx flies have significantly lower levels of survival rate compared to the transheterozgyous dCasRx flies, indicating toxicity of the Ubiq-CasRx system (Figure 2A and Figure 4A). It is worth noting that both transheterozygous CasRx and dCasRx flies have less than 50% inheritance rate, which is the expected ratio based on Mendelian genetics. Of the three target genes, the Ubiq-CasRx/+; U6-gRNAN/+ flies and Ubiq-CasRx/+; U6-gRNAy/+ flies are non-viable (0% inheritance) and did not grow beyond the second instar larvae stage (Figure 2A-2B). The surviving Ubiq-CasRx/+; U6-gRNAw/+ flies, the inheritance of which was 12.9%, showed a distinct fully-penetrant white-eyed phenotype (Figure 2B). In addition to observable traits associated with CasRx, we were able to confirm significant reduction of target gene transcripts for 3 target genes: Notch, yellow, and GFP (Figure 2E-2G). Reduction of white gene transcripts was observed in Ubiq-CasRx/+, U6-gRNAw/+ flies, compared to the control Ubiq-dCasRx/+, U6-gRNAw/+ flies, though the reduction was not statistically significant (Figure 2E - 2F). Evidence of off-target activity induced by CasRx was found when comparing the differentially expressed transcripts between samples from CasRx-expressing flies and samples from dCasRx-expressing flies (Figure 2E, 2G). The number of non-target transcripts significantly differentially expressed are as follows: white, 253 (1.4% of total transcripts); Notch, 300 (1.7%); yellow, 41 (0.23%); GFP, 5,880 (33%) (Figure2G). Out of the total 17,779 different transcripts, 6 non-target transcripts were significantly differentially expressed in all 4 groups of samples. One of the 6 transcripts identified was Gadd45, a gene involved in apoptosis and cellular arrest in flies, raising the possibility that the enzymatic action of CasRx may either directly trigger cellular apoptosis or indirectly trigger misexpression of other genes, which in turn leads to apoptosis. Finally, it is worth noting that the Ubiq-CasRx and Ubiq-dCasRx flies were not established as homozygous stocks, presumably due to toxicity conferred by high ubiquitous expression. As a result, heterozygous Ubiq-CasRx/CyO and Ubiq-dCasRx/CyO flies were used for crossing with homozygous gRNA fly lines. In sum, the two-component Ubiq-CasRx system is able to achieve ubiquitous RNA targeting for both endogenous and exogenous targets resulting in observable phenotypes and transcript reduction. These results also showed that CasRx-mediated RNA targeting may introduce toxicity in vivo.
Ubiquitous in vivo exogenous RNA Targeting Using a Three-Component CasRx System 
The results from the two-step cross showed that despite the exogenous nature of the target gene (i.e., Fluc), expressing all three transgenes in F2 triple transheterozygotes (Ubiq-CasRx/+; gRNAFluc/Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc) resulted in 100% lethality compared to control crosses involving Ubiq-dCasRx, where no lethality was observed in the F2 triple transheterozygotes (Ubiq-dCasRx/+; gRNAFluc/Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc) (Figure 3B-C). More specifically, only the combination of all three transgenes (Ubiq-CasRx/+; gRNAFluc/Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc) resulted in 100% lethality (Figure 3B and D), while (Ubiq-CasRx/+; gRNAFluc/TM6) and (Ubiq-CasRx/+; Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc/TM6) genotypes were viable and lacked phenotypes with their inheritance rates matching the expected Mendelian transmission rates, suggesting that the availability of the target sequence (i.e., firefly luciferase) in combination with Ubiq-CasRx/+ and the gRNAFluc&#160;is what resulted in the observed lethality phenotypes, presumably stemming from the collateral activity of Cas13 enzymes2,8. In addition, no distinguishable phenotypes or dramatic influence on inheritance in F1 transheterozygotes (Ubiq-CasRx/+; gRNAFluc/+ or Ubiq-CasRx/+; Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc/+) were observed compared to Ubiq-dCasRx controls (Ubiq-dCasRx/+; gRNAFluc/+ or Ubiq-dCasRx/+; Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc/+) (Figure 3B), indicating that a catalytically active enzyme is essential to obtain the lethality phenotypes observed. Furthermore, Fluc and Rluc expression levels in flies of all viable genotypes did not show significant reduction in Fluc expression in the Ubiq-dCasRx triple transheterozygotes (Ubiq-dCasRx/+; gRNAFluc/Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc) compared to dual luciferase reporter controls. This suggests that Fluc protein expression levels were not reduced by dCasRx targeting (Figure 3D). Taken together, the common lethality phenotype in the two different CasRx-mediated ubiquitous RNA targeting experiments indicate that when used on tissues ubiquitously, CasRx-mediated RNA targeting can be toxic to the organism.
Tissue-specific in vivo RNA Targeting Using a Three-Component CasRx System 
The high level of toxicity observed in ubiquitous RNA targeting experiments prompted us to explore the tissue-specific RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system design detailed in the methods section. Indeed, the level of toxicity observed was reduced when the overall CasRx expression was lowered using the UASt promoter compared to that of the Ubiq promoter, this is exemplified in three aspects: 1) the UASt-CasRx and UASt-dCasRx lines were maintained as homozygous lines, though based on the two-step cross scheme double balanced UASt-CasRx and UASt-dCasRx lines were used to perform the crosses, 2) all F2 generation dCasRx triple transheterozygous inheritance rates matched the expected 25% Mendelian inheritance rate, and 3) the F2 generation CasRx triple transheterozygous lethality phenotype was moderately reduced. In the white targeting experiment, of the 25% Mendelian inheritance rates expected in the F2 triple transheterozygotes, only 0.57% viable adult flies (UASt-CasRx/+; gRNAw/GMR-Gal4) were observed, all of which displayed severe eye specific pigmentation and morphology phenotypes (Figure 4A and 4B). For the white-targeting cross, the CasRx-expressing triple transheterozygous F2 inheritance rate was significantly lower than that of the dCasRx-expressing triple transheterozygous control group (27.6%) (Figure 4A). In the Notch targeting experiment, CasRx-expressing triple tranheterozygous carrying all three transgenes were 100% lethal, while the dCasRx control inheritance rate was 29.3% (Figure 4A). In the yellow targeting experiment, F2 triple transheterozygous CasRx-expressing, gRNAy, and y-GAL4 showed marginal chitin pigment reduction as small patches of yellow cuticle on the thorax and abdomen with an inheritance rate of 2.67%, much lower than that of the dCasRx control group (25.2%) (Figure4A). All dCasRx control triple transheterozygous flies did not present obvious phenotypes as the CasRx-expressing flies, indicating that catalytic activity of CasRx contributed to the phenotypes observed. The low inheritance rate in the CasRx triple transheterozygous group suggested that two sources of toxicity exist in CasRx RNA targeting: one is associated with high expression of CasRx, the toxicity of which was reduced by restrictive CasRx expression, the other is associated with the collateral activity. Taken together, these results showed that the CasRx system can achieve tissue-specific in vivo RNA targeting by leveraging the classical Gal4/UASt system and in the meantime reduce the toxicity. However, toxicity and occasional lethality phenotypes were still observed at a lower level of severity compared to that of the ubiquitous approaches, indicating that collateral cleavage activity is associated with toxicity.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: General overview of RNA targeting using a Cas13D system. (A) Schematics of the one-step genetic cross in the ubiquitous in vivo RNA targeting using a two-component CasRx system. (B) Schematics of a two-step genetic cross in the ubiquitous&#160;in vivo exogenous RNA targeting using the three-component CasRx system. (C) Schematics of a two-step genetic cross in the tissue-specific in vivo RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Ubiquitous in vivo RNA targeting using a two-component CasRx system (reprinted5). (A) Total inheritance percentages of transheterozygous flies inheriting Ubiq-CasRx (or Ubiq-dCasRx) and gRNAs. Blue shading in the box plot indicates phenotype penetrance. (B) Phenotypes of transheterozygous flies. Arrows indicate tissue necrosis in the eye. Black and white fly marked with &#39;&#39;X&#39;&#39; represents lethality. (C) Total inheritance percentages of transheterozygous flies of bidirectional crosses between Ubiq-CasRx (or Ubiq-dCasRx) and gRNAGFP-OpIE2-GFP flies. M, maternal inheritance of CasRx; P, paternal inheritance of CasRx. (D) F1 larvae progenies in the paternal cross. (E) Transcripts&#39; maximum a posteriori estimates for the logarithmic fold change. DESeq2 pipeline was used. (F) Transcripts per million (TPM) targeted with CasRx or dCasRx. (G) CasRx-depentent differentially expressed transcript percentage of transcripts. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Ubiquitous in vivo exogenous RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system. (A) Schematics of the two-step genetic cross. (B) Total inheritance percentages for all genotypes emerging in the F2 generation. Inheriting all three transgenes (Ubiq-CasRx, Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc, and gRNAFLuc) in F2 progeny resulted in 100% lethality and was significantly lower compared to the Ubiq-dCasRx triple transheterozygotes control group (p = 0.001, t-test). (C) Carrying Ubiq-CasRx/gRNAFluc alone or Ubiq-CasRx and Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc alone did not lead to severe lethality, and inheritance ratios between Ubiq-CasRx and Ubiq-dCasRx transheterozygotes were not significantly different (p = 0.41 and p = 0.51, respectively, t-test). (D) Luciferase ratios normalizing Fluc readings to Rluc readings. Triple transheterozygous flies expressing Ubiq-CasRx, Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc, gRNAFLuc were embryonic lethal, which was represented by a fly with an &#34;X&#34;, and as a result luciferase expression was not measured. Fluc/Rluc ratio of Ubiq-CasRx/+, Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc/TM6, Stb transheterozygotes was significantly lower than that of the other Ubiq-Fluc-Ubiq-Rluc-expressing groups (p = 1.2e-06 or lower, t-test). The results from the gRNAFLuc-only group were significantly lower than that of all other groups (p = 1.2e-06 or lower, t-test). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Tissue-specific in vivo RNA targeting using a three-component CasRx system (reprinted5). (A) Total inheritance percentage of triple transheterozygous flies carrying three transgenes (UASt-CasRx or UASt-dCasRx, gRNAs, and Gal4-driver. (B) Phenotypes of the triple transheterozygous flies. The white arrow indicates chitin pigment reduction in the thorax. Black and white fly marked with &#39;&#39;X&#39;&#39; represents lethality. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62154/62154fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Construct</td>
			<td>Description</td>
			<td>Primer</td>
			<td>Primer Sequence (5&#8217; to 3&#8217;)</td>
			<td>PCR Template</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">OA-1050E</td>
			<td rowspan="2">CasRx</td>
			<td>1050E.C3</td>
			<td>TACTAATTTTCCAC 
			ATCTCTATTTTGAC 
			CCGCAGATTAATTA 
			ATGAGCCCCAAGA 
			AGAA</td>
			<td rowspan="2">pNLS-RfxCas13d-NLS-HA (pCasRx)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1050E.C4</td>
			<td>CAATTGATTTGTTA 
			TTTTAAAAACGATT 
			CATTCTAGCTAGCT 
			TAAGCGTAATCTGG 
			AACA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">OA-1050R</td>
			<td rowspan="2">dCasRx</td>
			<td>1050E.C3</td>
			<td>TACTAATTTTCCAC 
			ATCTCTATTTTGAC 
			CCGCAGATTAATTA 
			ATGAGCCCCAAGA 
			AGAA</td>
			<td rowspan="2">pNLS-dRfxCas13d-NLS-HA (pdCasRx)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1050E.C4</td>
			<td>CAATTGATTTGTTA 
			TTTTAAAAACGATT 
			CATTCTAGCTAGCT 
			TAAGCGTAATCTG 
			GAACA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="4">OA-1050L</td>
			<td rowspan="2">UASt promoter</td>
			<td>1041.C9</td>
			<td>GCGGGTTCTCGA 
			CGGTCACGGCGG 
			GCATGTCGACGC 
			GGCCGCAACCAA 
			CAACACTAGTAG</td>
			<td rowspan="2">pJFRC81</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1041.C11</td>
			<td>CTGGCCTCCACC 
			TTTCTCTTCTTCT 
			TGGGGCTCATGT 
			TTAAACCCAATT 
			CCCTATTCAGA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">CasRx</td>
			<td>1050L.C1</td>
			<td>AATACAAGAAGA 
			GAACTCTGAATA 
			GGGAATTGGGT 
			TTAAACATGAGC 
			CCCAAGAAGAA</td>
			<td rowspan="2">pCasRx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1050E.C4</td>
			<td>CAATTGATTTGT 
			TATTTTAAAAAC 
			GATTCATTCTA 
			GCTAGCTTAAG 
			CGTAATCTGGA 
			ACA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="4">OA-1050S</td>
			<td rowspan="2">UASt promoter</td>
			<td>1041.C9</td>
			<td>GCGGGTTCTC 
			GACGGTCACG 
			GCGGGCATGT 
			CGACGCGGCC 
			GCAACCAACAA 
			CACTAGTAG</td>
			<td rowspan="2">pJFRC81</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1041.C11</td>
			<td>CTGGCCTCCA 
			CCTTTCTCTTC 
			TTCTTGGGGCT 
			CATGTTTAAAC 
			CCAATTCCCTA 
			TTCAGA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">dCasRx</td>
			<td>1050L.C1</td>
			<td>AATACAAGAAG 
			AGAACTCTGAAT 
			AGGGAATTGGG 
			TTTAAACATGAG 
			CCCCAAGAAGAA</td>
			<td rowspan="2">pdCasRx</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1050E.C4</td>
			<td>CAATTGATTTGT 
			TATTTTAAAAAC 
			GATTCATTCTAG 
			CTAGCTTAAGCG 
			TAATCTGGAACA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">OA-1043</td>
			<td rowspan="2">U6:3 promoter</td>
			<td>1043.C1</td>
			<td>GGGAATTGGGA 
			ATTGGGCAATAT 
			TTAAATGGCGGC 
			GCGCCGAATTCT 
			TTTTTGCTCACCT</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Addgene plasmid #164586</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1043.C23</td>
			<td>ACACTAGTGGAT 
			CTCTAGAGGTAC 
			CGTTGCGGCCG 
			CAAAAAAGTTGT 
			AATAGCCCCTCA 
			AAACTGGACCTT 
			CCACAACTGCAG 
			CCGACGTTAAAT 
			TGAAA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="6">OA-1052B</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Ubiq promoter</td>
			<td>1052B.C1</td>
			<td>GGGAATTGGGCA 
			ATATTTAAATGGC 
			GGCTGCAGCGC 
			GCAGATCGCCGAT</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Addgene plasmid #112686</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1052B.C2</td>
			<td>TTTCTTTATGTTT 
			TTGGCGTCTTCC 
			ATCCTAGGTCTG 
			CGGGTCAAAATA 
			GAGATG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">T2A-eGFP</td>
			<td>908A1</td>
			<td>ATAAAGGCCAAG 
			AAGGGCGGAAA 
			GATCGCCGTGG 
			AGGGCAGAGGA 
			AGTCTTCTAACAT 
			GC</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Addgene plasmid #112686</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>908A2</td>
			<td>TTGTTATTTTAAAA 
			ACGATTCATTCTA 
			GGCGATCGCTTA 
			CTTGTACAGCTC 
			GTCCATGCC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">Reversed Ubiq promoter</td>
			<td>908A3</td>
			<td>ACCGTGACCTAC 
			ATCGTCGACACTA 
			GTGGATCTCTAGA 
			CGCGCAGATCGC 
			CGATG</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Addgene plasmid #112686</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>908A4</td>
			<td>GGATCATAAACTT 
			TCGAAGTCATGC 
			GGCCGCTCTGCG 
			GGTCAAAATAGAG 
			ATGT</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: List of molecular construct and primers used in this study. This list includes all constructs (both the ID and description) and each construct&#39;s associated primers (both the ID and sequences (5&#39; to 3&#39;)) and templates used.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ubiquitous and Tissue-specific RNA Targeting in Drosophila Melanogaster using CRISPR/CasRx at JoVE.com

Ubiquitous and Tissue-specific RNA Targeting in Drosophila Melanogaster using CRISPR/CasRx

This article outlines a detailed protocol for using the RNA-targeting Cas13D enzyme (RfxCas13D) in flies.

Ubiquitous and Tissue-specific RNA Targeting in Drosophila Melanogaster using CRISPR/CasRx

CasRx, a member of the RNA-targeting Cas13 family, is a promising new addition of the CRISPR/Cas technologies in efficient gene transcript reduction with ...

ubiquitous-tissue-specific-rna-targeting-drosophila-melanogaster

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

2.9K Views.  University of California. This article outlines a detailed protocol for using the RNA-targeting Cas13D enzyme (RfxCas13D) in flies. 

Video: Ubiquitous and Tissue-specific RNA Targeting in Drosophila Melanogaster using CRISPR/CasRx

RNAi Screening for Host Factors Involved in Vaccinia Virus Infection using Drosophila Cells

Viral pathogens represent a significant public health threat; not only can viruses cause natural epidemics of human disease, but their potential use in bioterrorism is also a concern. A better understanding of the cellular factors that impact infection would facilitate the development of much-needed therapeutics. Recent advances in RNA interference (RNAi) technology coupled with complete genome sequencing of several organisms has led to the optimization of genome-wide, cell-based loss-of-function screens. Drosophila cells are particularly amenable to genome-scale screens because of the ease and efficiency of RNAi in this system 1. Importantly, a wide variety of viruses can infect Drosophila cells, including a number of mammalian viruses of medical and agricultural importance 2,3,4. Previous RNAi screens in Drosophila have identified host factors that are required for various steps in virus infection including entry, translation and RNA replication 5. Moreover, many of the cellular factors required for viral replication in Drosophila cell culture are also limiting in human cells infected with these viruses 4,6,7,8, 9. Therefore, the identification of host factors co-opted during viral infection presents novel targets for antiviral therapeutics. Here we present a generalized protocol for a high-throughput RNAi screen to identify cellular factors involved in viral infection, using vaccinia virus as an example.

RNAi Screening for Host Factors Involved in Vaccinia Virus Infection using Drosophila Cells

Novel host factors involved in viral infection can be identified through cell-based genome-wide loss of function RNAi screening. A Drosophila cell culture model is particularly amenable to this approach due to the ease and efficiency of RNAi. Here we demonstrate this technique using vaccinia virus as an example.

Viral pathogens represent a significant public health threat; not only can viruses cause natural epidemics of human disease, but their potential use in ...

RNA Interference in Ticks

Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites of wild and domestic animals and humans, and are considered to be second worldwide to mosquitoes as vectors of human diseases1 and the most important vectors affecting cattle industry worldwide2. Ticks are classified in the subclass Acari, order Parasitiformes, suborder Ixodida and are distributed worldwide from Arctic to tropical regions3. Despite efforts to control tick infestations, these ectoparasites remain a serious problem for human and animal health4,5.
RNA interference (RNAi)6 is a nucleic acid-based reverse genetic approach that involves disruption of gene expression in order to determine gene function or its effect on a metabolic pathway. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are the effector molecules of the RNAi pathway that is initiated by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and results in a potent sequence-specific degradation of cytoplasmic mRNAs containing the same sequence as the dsRNA trigger7-9. Post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanisms initiated by dsRNA have been discovered in all eukaryotes studied thus far, and RNAi has been rapidly developed in a variety of organisms as a tool for functional genomics studies and other applications10.
RNAi has become the most widely used gene-silencing technique in ticks and other organisms where alternative approaches for genetic manipulation are not available or are unreliable5,11. The genetic characterization of ticks has been limited until the recent application of RNAi12,13. In the short time that RNAi has been available, it has proved to be a valuable tool for studying tick gene function, the characterization of the tick-pathogen interface and the screening and characterization of tick protective antigens14. Herein, a method for RNAi through injection of dsRNA into unfed ticks is described. It is likely that the knowledge gained from this experimental approach will contribute markedly to the understanding of basic biological systems and the development of vaccines to control tick infestations and prevent transmission of tick-borne pathogens15-19.

A method for RNA interference (RNAi) by injection of dsRNA into unfed ticks is described. RNAi is the most widely used gene-silencing technique in ticks where the use of other methods of genetic manipulation has been limited.

Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites of wild and domestic animals and humans, and are considered to be second worldwide to mosquitoes as vectors ...

Using RNA-interference to Investigate the Innate Immune Response in Mouse Macrophages

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells. When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the pathogen, produce various cytokines and chemokines to recruit and stimulate other immune cells, and present antigens to stimulate the adaptive immune response. Thus, being able to efficiently manipulate macrophages with techniques such as RNA-interference (RNAi) is critical to our ability to investigate this important innate immune cell. However, macrophages can be technically challenging to transfect and can exhibit inefficient RNAi-induced gene knockdown. In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect two mouse macrophage cell lines (RAW264.7 and J774A.1) with siRNA using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System and describe procedures to maximize the effect of siRNA on gene knockdown. Moreover, the described methods are adapted to work in 96-well format, allowing for medium and high-throughput studies. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, we describe experiments that utilize RNAi to inhibit genes that regulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production.

In this protocol, we describe methods to efficiently transfect murine macrophage cell lines with siRNAs using the Amaxa Nucleofector 96-well Shuttle System, stimulate the macrophages with lipopolysaccharide, and monitor the effects on inflammatory cytokine production.

Macrophages are key phagocytic innate immune cells.  When macrophages encounter a pathogen, they produce antimicrobial proteins and compounds to kill the ...

Nucleocapsid Annealing-Mediated Electrophoresis (NAME) Assay Allows the Rapid Identification of HIV-1 Nucleocapsid Inhibitors

RNA or DNA folded in stable tridimensional folding are interesting targets in the development of antitumor or antiviral drugs. In the case of HIV-1, viral proteins involved in the regulation of the virus activity recognize several nucleic acids. The nucleocapsid protein NCp7 (NC) is a key protein regulating several processes during virus replication. NC is in fact a chaperone destabilizing the secondary structures of RNA and DNA and facilitating their annealing. The inactivation of NC is a new approach and an interesting target for anti-HIV therapy. The Nucleocapsid Annealing-Mediated Electrophoresis (NAME) assay was developed to identify molecules able to inhibit the melting and annealing of RNA and DNA folded in thermodynamically stable tridimensional conformations, such as hairpin structures of TAR and cTAR elements of HIV, by the nucleocapsid protein of HIV-1. The new assay employs either the recombinant or the synthetic protein, and oligonucleotides without the need of their previous labeling. The analysis of the results is achieved by standard polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) followed by conventional nucleic acid staining. The protocol reported in this work describes how to perform the NAME assay with the full-length protein or its truncated version lacking the basic N-terminal domain, both competent as nucleic acids chaperones, and how to assess the inhibition of NC chaperone activity by a threading intercalator. Moreover, NAME can be performed in two different modes, useful to obtain indications on the putative mechanism of action of the identified NC inhibitors.

Nucleocapsid Annealing-Mediated Electrophoresis NAME Assay Allows the Rapid Identification of HIV-1 Nucleocapsid Inhibitors

This protocol describes NAME, an assay that allows the rapid identification of molecules able to inhibit in vitro the chaperone activities of HIV-1 nucleocapsid protein.

RNA or DNA folded in stable tridimensional folding are interesting targets in the development of antitumor or antiviral drugs. In the case of HIV-1, viral ...

Systemic Bacterial Infection and Immune Defense Phenotypes in Drosophila Melanogaster

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the premier model organisms for studying the function and evolution of immune defense. Many aspects of innate immunity are conserved between insects and mammals, and since Drosophila can readily be genetically and experimentally manipulated, they are powerful for studying immune system function and the physiological consequences of disease. The procedure demonstrated here allows infection of flies by introduction of bacteria directly into the body cavity, bypassing epithelial barriers and more passive forms of defense and allowing focus on systemic infection. The procedure includes protocols for the measuring rates of host mortality, systemic pathogen load, and degree of induction of the host immune system. This infection procedure is inexpensive, robust and quantitatively repeatable, and can be used in studies of functional genetics, evolutionary life history, and physiology.

Systemic Bacterial Infection and Immune Defense Phenotypes in Drosophila Melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is an outstanding model organism for studying innate immune systems and the physiological consequences of infection and disease. This protocol describes how to deliver robust and quantitatively repeatable bacterial infections to D. melanogaster, and how to subsequently measure infection severity and quantify the host immune response.

The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the premier model organisms for studying the function and evolution of immune defense. Many aspects of ...

In Situ Detection of Bacteria within Paraffin-embedded Tissues Using a Digoxin-labeled DNA Probe Targeting 16S rRNA

The presence of bacteria within the pocket epithelium and underlying connective tissue in gingival biopsies from patients with periodontitis has been reported using various methods, including electron microscopy, immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence using bacteria-specific antibodies, and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) using a fluorescence-labeled oligonucleotide probe. Nevertheless, these methods are not widely used due to technical limitation or difficulties. Here a method to localize bacteria within paraffin-embedded tissues using DIG-labeled DNA probes has been introduced. The paraffin-embedded tissues are the most common form of biopsy tissues available from pathology banks. Bacteria can be detected either in a species-specific or universal manner. Bacterial signals are detected as either discrete forms (coccus, rod, fusiform, and hairy form) of bacteria or dispersed forms. The technique allows other histological information to be obtained: the epithelia, connective tissue, inflammatory infiltrates, and blood vessels are well distinguished. This method can be used to study the role of bacteria in various diseases, such as periodontitis, cancers, and inflammatory immune diseases.

In Situ Detection of Bacteria within Paraffin-embedded Tissues Using a Digoxin-labeled DNA Probe Targeting 16S rRNA

Here a method to localize bacteria within paraffin-embedded tissues using DIG-labeled 16S rRNA-targeting DNA probes has been described. This protocol can be applied to study the role of bacteria in various diseases such as periodontitis, cancers, and inflammatory immune diseases.

The presence of bacteria within the pocket epithelium and underlying connective tissue in gingival biopsies from patients with periodontitis has been ...

Targeting Biofilm Associated Staphylococcus aureus Using Resazurin Based Drug-susceptibility Assay

Most pathogenic bacteria are able to form biofilms during infection, but due to the difficulty of manipulating and assessing biofilms, the vast majority of laboratory work is conducted with planktonic cells. Here, we describe a peg plate biofilm assay as performed with Staphylococcus aureus. Bacterial biofilms are grown on pegs attached to a 96-well microtiter plate lid, washed through gentle submersion in buffer, and placed in a drug challenge plate. After subsequent incubation they are again washed and moved to a final recovery plate, in which the fluorescent dye resazurin serves as a viability indicator. This assay offers greatly increased ease-of-use, reliability, and reproducibility, as well as a wealth of data when conducted as a kinetic read. Moreover, this assay can be adapted to a medium-throughput drug screening approach by which an endpoint fluorescent readout is taken instead, offering a path for drug discovery efforts.

Targeting Biofilm Associated Staphylococcus aureus Using Resazurin Based Drug-susceptibility Assay

Most bacterial infections produce a biofilm. By virtue of their environment, biofilm associated bacteria are often phenotypically drug resistant. Novel antibacterial molecules that kill bacteria in biofilms are thus a high priority. We establish an assay to quickly screen for antimicrobial compounds that are effective at eradicating biofilms.

Most pathogenic bacteria are able to form biofilms during infection, but due to the difficulty of manipulating and assessing biofilms, the vast majority ...

Targeting Cysteine Thiols for in Vitro Site-specific Glycosylation of Recombinant Proteins

Stromal interaction molecule-1 (STIM1) is a type-I transmembrane protein located on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and plasma membranes (PM). ER-resident STIM1 regulates the activity of PM Orai1 channels in a process known as store operated calcium (Ca2+) entry which is the principal Ca2+ signaling process that drives the immune response. STIM1 undergoes post-translational N-glycosylation at two luminal Asn sites within the Ca2+ sensing domain of the molecule. However, the biochemical, biophysical, and structure biological effects of N-glycosylated STIM1 were poorly understood until recently due to an inability to readily obtain high levels of homogeneous N-glycosylated protein. Here, we describe the implementation of an in vitro chemical approach which attaches glucose moieties to specific protein sites applicable to understanding the underlying effects of N-glycosylation on protein structure and mechanism. Using solution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy we assess both efficiency of the modification as well as the structural consequences of the glucose attachment with a single sample. This approach can readily be adapted to study the myriad glycosylated proteins found in nature.

Targeting Cysteine Thiols for in Vitro Site-specific Glycosylation of Recombinant Proteins

Biochemical and structural analyses of glycosylated proteins require relatively large amounts of homogeneous samples. Here, we present an efficient chemical method for site-specific glycosylation of recombinant proteins purified from bacteria by targeting reactive Cys thiols.

Stromal interaction molecule-1 (STIM1) is a type-I transmembrane protein located on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and plasma membranes (PM). ER-resident ...

Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

During the pathogenic infection of Drosophila melanogaster, hemocytes play an important role in the immune response throughout the infection. Thus, the goal of this protocol is to develop a method to visualize the pathogen invasion in a specific immune compartment of flies, namely hemocytes. Using the method presented here, up to 3 &#215; 106 live hemocytes can be obtained from 200 Drosophila 3rd instar larvae in 30 min for ex vivo infection. Alternatively, hemocytes can be infected in vivo through injection of 3rd instar larvae followed by hemocyte extraction up to 24 h post-infection. These infected primary cells were fixed, stained, and imaged using confocal microscopy. Then, 3D representations were generated from the images to definitively show pathogen invasion. Additionally, high-quality RNA for qRT-PCR can be obtained for the detection of pathogen mRNA following infection, and sufficient protein can be extracted from these cells for Western blot analysis. Taken together, we present a method for definite reconciliation of pathogen invasion and confirmation of infection using bacterial and viral pathogen types and an efficient method for hemocyte extraction to obtain enough live hemocytes from Drosophila larvae for ex vivo and in vivo infection experiments.

Extraction of Hemocytes from Drosophila melanogaster Larvae for Microbial Infection and Analysis

This method demonstrates how to visualize pathogen invasion into insect cells with three-dimensional (3D) models. Hemocytes from Drosophila larvae were infected with viral or bacterial pathogens, either ex vivo or in vivo. Infected hemocytes were then fixed and stained for imaging with a confocal microscope and subsequent 3D cellular reconstruction.

During the pathogenic infection of Drosophila melanogaster, hemocytes play an important role in the immune response throughout the infection. Thus, the ...

Establishment of Viral Infection and Analysis of Host-Virus Interaction in Drosophila Melanogaster

Virus spreading is a major cause of epidemic diseases. Thus, understanding the interaction between the virus and the host is very important to extend our knowledge of prevention and treatment of viral infection. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has proven to be one of the most efficient and productive model organisms to screen for antiviral factors and investigate virus-host interaction, due to powerful genetic tools and highly conserved innate immune signaling pathways. The procedure described here demonstrates a nano-injection method to establish viral infection and induce systemic antiviral responses in adult flies. The precise control of the viral injection dose in this method enables high experimental reproducibility. Protocols described in this study include the preparation of flies and the virus, the injection method, survival rate analysis, the virus load measurement, and an antiviral pathway assessment. The influence effects of viral infection by the flies' background were mentioned here. This infection method is easy to perform and quantitatively repeatable; it can be applied to screen for host/viral factors involved in virus-host interaction and to dissect the crosstalk between innate immune signaling and other biological pathways in response to viral infection.

Establishment of Viral Infection and Analysis of Host-Virus Interaction in Drosophila Melanogaster

This protocol describes how to establish viral infection in vivo in Drosophila melanogaster using the nano-injection method and basic techniques to analyze virus-host interaction.

Virus spreading is a major cause of epidemic diseases. Thus, understanding the interaction between the virus and the host is very important to extend our ...