We thank Mrs. Lyndsay Busby for administrative assistance and Mr. Joel Pino for media support. NIH grants supported this work: DK123549, AT010875, DK052766, DK128913, and Mayo Clinic Center for Cell Signaling in Gastroenterology (DK084567).

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Mayo Clinic.
1. Setup
<ol>
	<li>Fast 8- to 10-week-old mice for 4 h. Provide mice with access to water. 
	NOTE: We use wild-type male C57BL/6J mice for all experiments presented here, but they can be performed on mice of any strain, gender and genotype.</li>
	<li>Cool 15 mL of distilled water in a 50 mL conical tube in a 4 &#176;C refrigerator.</li>
	<li>Heat another 15 mL of distilled water in a beaker using a hot plate with a magnetic stir bar to approximately 80-90 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Measure 0.5% methylcellulose for a total of 30 mL (0.15 g).</li>
	<li>Gently add methylcellulose to 15 mL of hot water so that it does not clump. The methylcellulose solution will be cloudy during this process.</li>
	<li>Once dissolved, remove the beaker from the hot plate and add the 15 mL of chilled water to the hot beaker.</li>
	<li>Place in a 4 &#176;C fridge until the solution is clear, approximately 15-20 min.</li>
	<li>When clear, weigh 3 mg of rhodamine isothiocyanate (RITC)-dextran per 5 mL of 0.5% methylcellulose solution and mix to combine. This is the liquid condition in the Representative Results section.
	<ol>
		<li>Alternatively, weigh 25 mg of fluorescent polyethylene microspheres and mix with 200 &#181;L of the methylcellulose solution until well incorporated. Thorough incorporation of microspheres is ensured by vortex prior to gavage. The experimenter must visualize homogeneous distribution of suspended microspheres in the mixture.</li>
		<li>As the RITC-dextran solution is light sensitive, refrigerate the solution. Prepare the RITC-dextran solution and the microshpere mixture in advance and use within 2 months. Resuspend the microsphere mixture before use. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Microspheres of varying sizes are used to study gastrointestinal handling of different materials. In the Representative Results section, we demonstrate the results of using small (diameter: 75-90 &#181;m) and larger (diameter: 180-212 &#181;m) microspheres.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Intraluminal content gavage
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the gavage by attaching an 18 Ga x 50 mm feeding tube to a 1 mL syringe and drawing 200 &#181;L of RITC solution or microsphere solution.</li>
	<li>Manually restrain the fasted animal using the one-handed restraint technique25. Refer to the institution&#39;s information on proper murine restraint techniques.</li>
	<li>Gently insert the feeding tube through the mouth and esophagus of the mouse until it enters the stomach. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The gavage step is critical for a successful experiment. It requires experienced hands that can consistently insert the tube roughly the same distance in each mouse. This step needs to be standardized by experimenters carrying out the protocol. The same experimenter should gavage all mice cohorts that will be compared to each other.</li>
	<li>Slowly expel the syringe contents into the stomach and carefully remove the tube from the mouse.</li>
	<li>Following the gavage, return the mouse to the cage.</li>
	<li>Dispose of the gavage tube.</li>
	<li>Repeat the process as needed for the desired number of animals.</li>
</ol>
3. Bowel dissection
<ol>
	<li>Before beginning the dissections, turn on the in vivo imaging instrument to allow it to come to temperature.</li>
	<li>Sacrifice the mouse 30 min after the gavage. Use carbon dioxide inhalation to sacrifice the mouse, followed by cervical dislocation to ensure successful euthanasia.</li>
	<li>After confirming successful euthanasia, place the mouse in supine position on a dissection stage and pin its four appendages on the stage to have access to the abdomen. Wet the surface of the abdomen with 70% ethanol to wet the abdominal hairs.</li>
	<li>Use micro-dissection forceps (#5) to pull the skin and acquire sharp surgical scissors to make a transverse incision 1 cm above the anus. To expose the intraperitoneal cavity, continue the incision vertically up the abdomen until the rib cage.</li>
	<li>Gently move the cecum to the left with the micro-dissection forceps to expose the distal colon.</li>
	<li>Cut the distal colon with micro-dissection scissors just proximal to the rectum.</li>
	<li>Gently unravel the colon, cecum, and small intestine by pulling slowly in the opposite direction. 
	NOTE: Maintaining the dissected bowels in one continuous segment will create the most ease for the investigator. Rips and tears along the segment will cause subsequent steps to be more difficult.</li>
	<li>Use micro-dissection scissors to cut proximal to the stomach.</li>
	<li>Use forceps to transfer the dissected bowels to the measurement sheet (Figure 1). Place the stomach at 0 mm and arrange the bowels along the ruler until 200 mm. Use micro-dissection scissors to cut at 200 mm. Repeat this process of aligning the bowels from 0 mm to 200 mm along the rulers while remaining confident that the orientation of the bowels does not get confused.
	<ol>
		<li>Be careful to avoid stretching the bowels while aligning to the rulers.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Once the tissue is arranged on the ruler, arrange the cecum so that it is parallel with the tissue but not in direct contact with it (if any fluorescence is found within that region, then a clear difference distinction between the cecum and the intestines will be needed).</li>
	<li>Place the measurement sheet with the dissected tissue in a dark area so the fluorescence can be preserved until it is time to image.</li>
</ol>
4. Ex vivo imaging
<ol>
	<li>Open the in vivo imaging software and log in.</li>
	<li>Initialize the imaging instrument so it is ready for image acquisition.</li>
	<li>Set the &#39;Excitation&#39; and &#39;Emission&#39; fields to the corresponding color used for the bead or RITC gavage. Red (liquid): excitation 535 nm /emission 600 nm. Green (microspheres): excitation 465 nm /emission 520 nm.</li>
	<li>Set the exposure to &#39;Auto&#39;.</li>
	<li>Select the field of view.</li>
	<li>Before placing the measurement sheet into the instrument, ensure the intestines have not shifted during transport.</li>
	<li>Place the measurement sheet into the instrument within the field of view.</li>
	<li>Securely shut the door to the instrument and select Snapshot to photograph the field of view.</li>
	<li>Save collected pictures to a flash drive for analysis. Save individual captures of the fluorescent and photograph images. An overlay of the photograph and fluorescence indicates the location of fluorescent material in the GI tract (Figure 1). 
	&#8203;NOTE: We recommend saving the files in the Tag Image File (.tif) format for downstream processing.</li>
</ol>
5. Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Open the fluorescent and photograph image files in a picture editing software.</li>
	<li>Adjust the pixel size of both images such that they have the exact same dimensions (our convention was to set both images to 1280 pixels by 850 pixels [height x width]).</li>
	<li>Close the photograph file. The following steps involve only the fluorescent image.</li>
	<li>Use an eraser tool to remove the background and make it transparent. An eraser may be needed to remove patches of the remaining background.</li>
	<li>Create a new layer. Make it an entirely black background to the fluorescent signal. This can be achieved by choosing a black fill to the layer and dragging the layer to lie below the layer with the fluorescent image.</li>
	<li>Save the new fluorescent image, containing only the fluorescent signal on a black background, as a new .tif file.</li>
	<li>Open the new fluorescent and photograph images in ImageJ.</li>
	<li>Turn each image into a 32-bit image by choosing Image &#62; Type &#62; 32-bit.</li>
	<li>Create a merged image of both by choosing Image &#62; Color &#62; Merge Channels. In the dialog box that opens, select the photograph file for the gray channel and the fluorescent file under any colored channels.</li>
	<li>Turn off the scale of the merged image by selecting Analyze &#62; Set Scale &#62; Click to Remove Scale.</li>
	<li>Select the &#34;Rectangle&#34; tool in ImageJ.</li>
	<li>Draw a rectangle around a section of the small bowel. Pay close attention to the width of this region of interest (ROI), as it should remain constant between all ROIs. The nominal value is not essential, just that it is kept consistent across all ROIs drawn on this image [since the small bowel takes over several rows, individual ROIs will be drawn over each section of the small bowel in a different row (Figure 1)]. Figure 2 shows the location of the width value in the ImageJ toolbar.</li>
	<li>Duplicate the ROI by selecting Image &#62; Duplicate. Select only the channel corresponding to the colored channel.</li>
	<li>Use the rectangle tool again to draw an ROI over the whole new image.</li>
	<li>Retrieve a profile of the fluorescence by selecting Analyze &#62; Plot Profile. The resulting graph plots on the y-axis the average intensity for each pixel along the length of the ROI. This was selected in step 5.12 to be the length of the analyzed section of the small bowel</li>
	<li>Open the list of values and copy them to a spreadsheet software.</li>
	<li>Repeat steps 5.12-5.16 for each section of the small bowel on a different ruler row. Keep pasting the values on the same spreadsheet file immediately under each previous set of values, such that all continuous rows in that column contain the average intensity value for the entire length of the small bowel.</li>
	<li>In the spreadsheet software, multiply each average intensity value by the constant width of the ROI rectangle created in step 5.12. This will yield the real intensity value along the small bowel at each point. 
	NOTE: Different animals will have slight variations on small bowel length. To prevent the length differences from affecting the outcome of downstream data analysis, the string of intensity values needs to be binned into a consistent number of bins across all experimental samples (Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5 display results for three bin sizes).</li>
	<li>Divide the number of intensity values by the number of bins desired. The resulting quotient S determines the number of intensity values being included in each bin.</li>
	<li>Determine the bin where each raw intensity value will go by using a roundup formula. This step places each raw intensity value into a bin. Each raw intensity value is chronologically indexed with the integer N. The quotient N/S determines the bin number assigned to each raw value. The roundup formula should round this quotient to a whole number with no decimals.</li>
	<li>Generate the value for each bin by using an averageif formula. The objective is to average the raw values assigned to a specific bin in Step 5.20. Hence, the arguments in the formula should be: (1) assigned bins generated in Step 5.20, (2) bin number, (3) raw intensity values. 
	NOTE: The first analysis we can perform on the binned data is a geometric center analysis, which quantifies how far we observe the highest fluorescent intensity along the small intestine (Figure 4).</li>
	<li>Normalize each intensity value over the total fluorescent intensity. In other words, divide each intensity value by the sum of all intensities.</li>
	<li>Multiply each normalized value by the bin number. The product reflects the relative weight of each bin, contributing to the total fluorescent intensity.</li>
	<li>Adding all values generated in Step 5.23 yields the bin number at the center of the fluorescent signal. Divide by the number of bins to express the geometric center as the fraction of small bowel traveled by the fluorescent center. 
	NOTE: To reflect the spatial distribution of the signal, the next step is to generate the power spectrum of the binned intensity data set (Figure 5).</li>
	<li>Open a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) wizard in the spreadsheet software. Select the input as the binned data set and the output as an empty set of the same number of rows as bins.</li>
	<li>Extract the real value component of the FFT.</li>
	<li>Raise each real value of the FFT to the second power. This yields a data set of power spectra.</li>
	<li>Select the first half of the power spectra data set and move it so that it lies below the second half. This has the effect of centering the power spectra around the center frequency when it is plotted in the next step.</li>
	<li>Plot the power spectra on the y-axis of an x-y graph where the x-axis values are the range from -1 x (number of bins/2) to (number of bins/2) -1. In the case of 1000 bins, the axis values would range from -500 to 499.</li>
	<li>Power spectra for each animal should be compared on the basis of the spread of non-zero peaks and the heights of these non-zero peaks.</li>
</ol>

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<li>Zhu, Y. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Enteric+sensory+neurons+communicate+with+interstitial+cells+of+Cajal+to+affect+pacemaker+activity+in+the+small+intestine%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Pfl%C3%BCgers+Archiv%3A+European+Journal+of+Physiology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Enteric sensory neurons communicate with interstitial cells of Cajal to affect pacemaker activity in the small intestine.</a> Pflügers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology. 446 (7), 1467-1475 (2014).</li>
<li>Treichel, A. J., Farrugia, G., Beyder, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+touchy+business+of+gastrointestinal+%28GI%29+mechanosensitivity%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Brain+Research%22%5BJournal%5D)">The touchy business of gastrointestinal (GI) mechanosensitivity.</a> Brain Research. 1693, 197-200 (2018).</li>
</ol>

The GI tract, like other tubular organs, such as blood vessels, requires mechanical sensors and effectors to maintain homeostasis26,27,28. However, the GI tract is unique in that the physical properties of the materials that traverse it are not constant across meals. Intraluminal contents of various physical properties (solid, liquid, and gas) transit the gut, generating different mechanical inputs to the GI mechanoreceptors. In...

The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a multiple-foot-long organ system, roughly approximated as a tube of varying dimensions and physical properties1. As the contents move through its length, the GI tract&#39;s primary function is to absorb substances critical for life. The small intestine is specifically responsible for nutrient absorption. The small intestine&#39;s transit is tightly regulated to match the digestion and absorption functions, resulting in various motility patterns. Bayliss and Starling described the &#34;law of the intestine&#34;2 in 1899, showing the contractile propulsion program in the intestine known today as the peristaltic reflex; the segment proximal to the food bolus contracts to propel it forward, and the distal segment relaxes to receive it. In theory, this pattern alone could be sufficient to transport material aborally, but over a century of research has painted a more complex picture of contractile activity in the GI tract. Three small intestine motility periods are recognized in humans: the migrating motor complex (MMC), the fasting period, and the postprandial period3. The same patterns have been reported in mice4,5. The MMC is a cyclic motor pattern conserved across most mammals6,7. The MMC has a characteristic four-phase pattern that serves as a useful clinical marker in functional GI disorders7. The four phases, in order of occurrence, are (I) quiescence, (II) irregular, low amplitude contractions, (III) regular high amplitude contractions, and (IV) ramp-down period of declining activity7. The MMC marks the major motor pattern of the fasting period3. MMCs of the fasting period clear up the contents of the small intestine in preparation for the next meal.
The motor patterns of the postprandial period are optimized for the digestive and absorptive functions3. Regardless of caloric composition, initial transit is quick along the small intestine, contents are spread along the length of the bowel, and transit subsequently slows down8. Absorption is optimized by increasing contact surface area and slowing it down to increase residence time. Once the nutrients are inside the lumen, the dominant pattern consists of close (&#60;2 cm apart) uncoordinated contractions (segmenting contractions), with a few superimposed large-amplitude contractions spanning the whole length of the small bowel (peristaltic contractions)9. Segmenting contractions mix the intraluminal contents in place. The occasional large peristaltic contractions propel the contents towards the colon.
The timing of this transition back to MMCs depends on food volume and caloric composition10. Thus, the small bowel samples luminal cues to regulate when to transition between motility periods. Mechanical cues, such as physical properties of luminal contents11, luminal volume, and wall tension, engage mechanoreceptor cells in the GI wall12,13,14,15,16. Indeed, increasing the solid component of a meal leads to an increase in small bowel transit17. We speculate that physical properties, such as the liquid or solid state of intraluminal contents, must engage different mechanoreceptors due to the various forces they generate on the GI wall18.
The gold standard for measuring in vivo GI transit in humans, as in mice, is the use of radioactive tracers measured by scintigraphy as they exit the stomach or transit along the colon19,20. In mammals, the small bowel loops in unpredictable ways making the small bowel difficult to image in vivo reliably, but progress is being made21. Further, there is currently a lack of tools to quantify how the small bowel handles particulates of varying properties and sizes. The starting point here was a gold-standard technique that standardizes the study of small bowel transit22,23,24 and barrier function22. It consists of gavaging mice with a fluorescent material, waiting for GI motility to transport the material, excising the GI tract, segmenting it into several sections from stomach to colon, sectioning, and homogenizing intraluminal contents for fluorescence quantification. We made two improvements. First, we altered the makeup of the gavaged contents to include fluorescent microscopic beads to determine how the small bowel distributes physical particulates. Second, we improved the spatial resolution by imaging the whole GI tract from stomach to colon ex vivo and used variable size binning to standardize our analysis across animals. We postulate that this reveals novel insights into the balance of propulsive versus segmenting contractions during the postprandial phase.

<table><tbody><tr><td>C57BL/6J mice</td><td>Jackson Laboratory</td><td>664</td><td>other mice can be used with this protocol</td></tr><tr><td>Dissection tools</td><td>n/a</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Excel software</td><td>Microsoft</td><td>n/a</td><td>used for spreadsheet analysis</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent Green Polyethylene Microspheres 1.00g/cc 75-90um - 10g</td><td>Cospheric</td><td>UVPMS-BG-1.00 75-90um - 10g</td><td>&quot;smaller beads&quot; in the manuscript</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescent Green Polyethylene Microspheres 1.00g/cc 180-212um - 10g</td><td>Cospheric</td><td>UVPMS-BG-1.00 180-212um - 10g</td><td>&quot;larger beads&quot; in the manuscript</td></tr><tr><td>Gavage needles</td><td>Instech</td><td>FTP-18-50-50</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ImageJ software</td><td>n/a</td><td>n/a</td><td>used to extract fluorescence profile</td></tr><tr><td>Laminated ruler paper (prepared in-house)</td><td>n/a</td><td>n/a</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Methyl cellulose (viscosity: 400 cP)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>M0262</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Photoshop software</td><td>Adobe</td><td>n/a</td><td>used for image processing</td></tr><tr><td>Rhodamine B isothiocyanate-Dextran</td><td>Sigma</td><td>r8881-100mg</td><td>&quot;liquid&quot; condition in the manuscript</td></tr><tr><td>Xenogen IVIS 200</td><td>Perkin Elmer</td><td>124262</td><td>In vivo imaging system</td></tr></tbody></table>

studying murine small bowel mechanosensing of luminal particulates

Gastrointestinal (GI) motility is critical for normal digestion and absorption. In the small bowel, which absorbs nutrients, motility optimizes digestion and absorption. For this reason, some of the motility patterns in the small bowel include segmentation for mixing of luminal contents and peristalsis for their propulsion. Physical properties of luminal contents modulate the patterns of small bowel motility. The mechanical stimulation of GI mechanosensory circuits by transiting luminal contents and underlying gut motility initiate and modulate complex GI motor patterns. Yet, the mechanosensory mechanisms that drive this process remain poorly understood. This is primarily due to a lack of tools to dissect how the small bowel handles materials of different physical properties. To study how the small bowel handles particulates of varying sizes, we have modified an established in vivo method to determine small bowel transit. We gavage live mice with fluorescent liquid or tiny fluorescent beads. After 30 minutes, we dissect out the bowels to image the distribution of fluorescent contents across the entirety of the GI tract. In addition to high-resolution measurements of the geometric center, we use variable size binning and spectral analysis to determine how different materials affect small bowel transit. We have explored how a recently discovered "gut touch" mechanism affects small bowel motility using this approach.

We show representative outcomes from Step 3 onwards. Figure 1 shows the intact explanted bowels, with fluorescent measurements overlaid. The stomach (purple) is laid along the same axis as the small intestine (orange), but we prefer moving the cecum (blue) to the side to prevent overlap with the large intestine (orange). As evidenced in the left panel, this is not always possible due to organ size. We cut the small bowel at ~200 mm to maximize the coverage of continuous segments, but this is...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates at JoVE.com

Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates

To study how the small bowel handles particulates of varying sizes, we have modified an established in vivo method to determine small bowel transit.

Gastrointestinal (GI) motility is critical for normal digestion and absorption. In the small bowel, which absorbs nutrients, motility optimizes digestion ...

studying-murine-small-bowel-mechanosensing-of-luminal-particulates

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

1.8K Views.  Mayo Clinic. To study how the small bowel handles particulates of varying sizes, we have modified an established in vivo method to determine small bowel transit.

Video: Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates

Functional Assessment of Intestinal Motility and Gut Wall Inflammation in Rodents: Analyses in a Standardized Model of Intestinal Manipulation

Inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract is a common reason for a variety of human diseases. Animal research models are critical in investigating the complex cellular and molecular of intestinal pathology. Although the tunica mucosa is often the organ of interest in many inflammatory diseases, recent works demonstrated that the muscularis externa (ME) is also a highly immunocompetent organ that harbours a dense network of resident immunocytes.1,2 These works were performed within the standardized model of intestinal manipulation (IM) that leads to inflammation of the bowel wall, mainly limited to the ME. Clinically this inflammation leads to prolonged intestinal dysmotility, known as postoperative ileus (POI) which is a frequent and unavoidable complication after abdominal surgery.3 The inflammation is characterized by liberation of proinflammatory mediators such as IL-64 or IL-1&beta; or inhibitory neurotransmitters like nitric oxide (NO).5 Subsequently, tremendous numbers of immunocytes extravasate into the ME, dominated by polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) and monocytes and finally maintain POI.2 Lasting for days, this intestinal paralysis leads to an increased risk of aspiration, bacterial translocation and infectious complications up to sepsis and multi organ failure and causes a high economic burden.6
In this manuscript we demonstrate the standardized model of IM and in vivo assessment of gastrointestinal transit (GIT) and colonic transit. Furthermore we demonstrate a method for separation of the ME from the tunica mucosa followed by immunological analysis, which is crucial to distinguish between the inflammatory responses in these both highly immunoactive bowel wall compartments. All analyses are easily transferable to any other research models, affecting gastrointestinal function.

Postoperative ileus (POI) is a complication of abdominal surgery leading to increased morbidity and a prolonged hospital stay. Because prophylactic or therapeutic strategies are lacking intensified research is necessary. Therefore we established a standardized and feasible mouse model to investigate the pathophysiology of POI and to study potential therapeutic options.

Inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract is a common reason for a variety of human diseases. Animal research models are critical in investigating the ...

Fabrication and Implantation of Miniature Dual-element Strain Gages for Measuring In Vivo Gastrointestinal Contractions in Rodents.

Gastrointestinal dysfunction remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Indeed, gastrointestinal (GI) motility in health and disease remains an area of productive research with over 1,400 published animal studies in just the last 5 years. Numerous techniques have been developed for quantifying smooth muscle activity of the stomach, small intestine, and colon. In vitro and ex vivo techniques offer powerful tools for mechanistic studies of GI function, but outside the context of the integrated systems inherent to an intact organism. Typically, measuring in vivo smooth muscle contractions of the stomach has involved an anesthetized preparation coupled with the introduction of a surgically placed pressure sensor, a static pressure load such as a mildly inflated balloon or by distending the stomach with fluid under barostatically-controlled feedback. Yet many of these approaches present unique disadvantages regarding both the interpretation of results as well as applicability for in vivo use in conscious experimental animal models. The use of dual element strain gages that have been affixed to the serosal surface of the GI tract has offered numerous experimental advantages, which may continue to outweigh the disadvantages. Since these gages are not commercially available, this video presentation provides a detailed, step-by-step guide to the fabrication of the current design of these gages. The strain gage described in this protocol is a design for recording gastric motility in rats. This design has been modified for recording smooth muscle activity along the entire GI tract and requires only subtle variation in the overall fabrication. Representative data from the entire GI tract are included as well as discussion of analysis methods, data interpretation and presentation.

Fabrication and Implantation of Miniature Dual-element Strain Gages for Measuring In Vivo Gastrointestinal Contractions in Rodents.

The in vivo measurement of smooth muscle contractions along the gastrointestinal tract of laboratory animals remains a powerful, though underutilized, technique. Flexible, dual element strain gages are not commercially available and require fabrication. This protocol describes the construction of reliable, inexpensive strain gages for acute or chronic implantation in rodents.

Gastrointestinal dysfunction remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Indeed, gastrointestinal (GI) motility in health and disease remains an ...

Bioengineering

In vitro Functional Characterization of Mouse Colorectal Afferent Endings

This video demonstrates in detail an in vitro single-fiber electrophysiological recording protocol using a mouse colorectum-nerve preparation. The approach allows unbiased identification and functional characterization of individual colorectal afferents. Extracellular recordings of propagated action potentials (APs) that originate from one or a few afferent (i.e., single-fiber) receptive fields (RFs) in the colorectum are made from teased nerve fiber fascicles. The colorectum is removed with either the pelvic (PN) or lumbar splanchnic (LSN) nerve attached and opened longitudinally. The tissue is placed in a recording chamber, pinned flat and perfused with oxygenated Krebs solution. Focal electrical stimulation is used to locate the colorectal afferent endings, which are further tested by three distinct mechanical stimuli (blunt probing, mucosal stroking and circumferential stretch) to functionally categorize the afferents into five mechanosensitive classes. Endings responding to none of these mechanical stimuli are categorized as mechanically-insensitive afferents (MIAs). Both mechanosensitive and MIAs can be assessed for sensitization (i.e., enhanced response, reduced threshold, and/or acquisition of mechanosensitivity) by localized exposure of RFs to chemicals (e.g., inflammatory soup (IS), capsaicin, adenosine triphosphate (ATP)). We describe the equipment and colorectum&#8211;nerve recording preparation, harvest of colorectum with attached PN or LSN, identification of RFs in the colorectum, single-fiber recording from nerve fascicles, and localized application of chemicals to the RF. In addition, challenges of the preparation and application of standardized mechanical stimulation are also discussed.

In vitro Functional Characterization of Mouse Colorectal Afferent Endings

This video demonstrates a protocol for conducting single-fiber electrophysiological recordings on an in vitro mouse colorectum-nerve preparation.

This video demonstrates in detail an in vitro single-fiber electrophysiological recording protocol using a mouse colorectum-nerve preparation. The ...

Gastrointestinal Motility Monitor (GIMM)

The Gastrointestinal Motility Monitor (GIMM; Catamount Research and Development; St. Albans, VT) is an in vitro system that monitors propulsive motility in isolated segments of guinea pig distal colon. The complete system consists of a computer, video camera, illuminated organ bath, peristaltic and heated water bath circulating pumps, and custom GIMM software to record and analyze data. Compared with traditional methods of monitoring colonic peristalsis, the GIMM system allows for continuous, quantitative evaluation of motility. The guinea pig distal colon is bathed in warmed, oxygenated Krebs solution, and fecal pellets inserted in the oral end are propelled along the segment of colon at a rate of about 2 mm/sec. Movies of the fecal pellet proceeding along the segment are captured, and the GIMM software can be used track the progress of the fecal pellet. Rates of propulsive motility can be obtained for the entire segment or for any particular region of interest. In addition to analysis of bolus-induced motility patterns, spatiotemporal maps can be constructed from captured video segments to assess spontaneous motor activity patterns. Applications of this system include pharmacological evaluation of the effects of receptor agonists and antagonists on propulsive motility, as well as assessment of changes that result from pathophysiological conditions, such as inflammation or stress. The guinea pig distal colon propulsive motility assay, using the GIMM system, is straightforward and simple to learn, and it provides a reliable and reproducible method of assessing propulsive motility.

Gastrointestinal Motility Monitor GIMM

Evaluation of colonic motility in the guinea pig distal colon with the Gastrointestinal Motility Monitor (GIMM) is a straightforward and simple to learn approach to quantitatively evaluate propulsive motility in the gastrointestinal tract.

The Gastrointestinal Motility Monitor (GIMM; Catamount Research and Development; St. Albans, VT) is an in vitro system that monitors propulsive motility ...

Biology

Ex Vivo Intestinal Sacs to Assess Mucosal Permeability in Models of Gastrointestinal Disease

The epithelial barrier is the first innate defense of the gastrointestinal tract and selectively regulates transport from the lumen to the underlying tissue compartments, restricting the transport of smaller molecules across the epithelium and almost completely prohibiting epithelial macromolecular transport. This selectivity is determined by the mucous gel layer, which limits the transport of lipophilic molecules and both the apical receptors and tight junctional protein complexes of the epithelium. In vitro cell culture models of the epithelium are convenient, but as a model, they lack the complexity of interactions between the microbiota, mucous-gel, epithelium and immune system. On the other hand, in vivo assessment of intestinal absorption or permeability may be performed, but these assays measure overall gastrointestinal absorption, with no indication of site specificity. Ex vivo permeability assays using &#34;intestinal sacs&#34; are a rapid and sensitive method of measuring either overall intestinal integrity or comparative transport of a specific molecule, with the added advantage of intestinal site specificity. Here we describe the preparation of intestinal sacs for permeability studies and the calculation of the apparent permeability (Papp) of a molecule across the intestinal barrier. This technique may be used as a method of assessing drug absorption, or to examine regional epithelial barrier dysfunction in animal models of gastrointestinal disease.

Ex Vivo Intestinal Sacs to Assess Mucosal Permeability in Models of Gastrointestinal Disease

This protocol describes the use of excised intestinal tissue preparations or "intestinal sacs" as an ex vivo model of intestinal barrier function. This model may be used to assess integrity of both the epithelial barrier and the mucous gel layer at specific intestinal sites in animal models of digestive disease.

The epithelial barrier is the first innate defense of the gastrointestinal tract and selectively regulates transport from the lumen to the underlying ...

Video Imaging and Spatiotemporal Maps to Analyze Gastrointestinal Motility in Mice

The enteric nervous system (ENS) plays an important role in regulating gastrointestinal (GI) motility and can function independently of the central nervous system. Changes in ENS function are a major cause of GI symptoms and disease and may contribute to GI symptoms reported in neuropsychiatric disorders including autism. It is well established that isolated colon segments generate spontaneous, rhythmic contractions known as Colonic Migrating Motor Complexes (CMMCs). A procedure to analyze the enteric neural regulation of CMMCs in ex vivo preparations of mouse colon is described. The colon is dissected from the animal and flushed to remove fecal content prior to being cannulated in an organ bath. Data is acquired via a video camera positioned above the organ bath and converted to high-resolution spatiotemporal maps via an in-house software package. Using this technique, baseline contractile patterns and pharmacological effects on ENS function in colon segments can be compared over 3-4 hr. In addition, propagation length and speed of CMMCs can be recorded as well as changes in gut diameter and contraction frequency. This technique is useful for characterizing gastrointestinal motility patterns in transgenic mouse models (and in other species including rat and guinea pig). In this way, pharmacologically induced changes in CMMCs are recorded in wild type mice and in the Neuroligin-3R451C mouse model of autism. Furthermore, this technique can be applied to other regions of the GI tract including the duodenum, jejunum and ileum and at different developmental ages in mice.

This article describes a video imaging technique and high-resolution spatiotemporal mapping to identify changes in the neural regulation of colonic motility in adult mice. Subtle effects on gastrointestinal (GI) function can be detected using this approach in isolated tissue preparations to advance our understanding of GI disease.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) plays an important role in regulating gastrointestinal (GI) motility and can function independently of the central ...

Neuroscience

Functional Assessment of Intestinal Permeability and Neutrophil Transepithelial Migration in Mice using a Standardized Intestinal Loop Model

The intestinal mucosa is lined by a single layer of epithelial cells that forms a dynamic barrier allowing paracellular transport of nutrients and water while preventing passage of luminal bacteria and exogenous substances. A breach of this layer results in increased permeability to luminal contents and recruitment of immune cells, both of which are hallmarks of pathologic states in the gut including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). 
Mechanisms regulating epithelial barrier function and transepithelial migration (TEpM) of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) are incompletely understood due to the lack of experimental in vivo methods allowing quantitative analyses. Here, we describe a robust murine experimental model that employs an exteriorized intestinal segment of either ileum or proximal colon. The exteriorized intestinal loop (iLoop) is fully vascularized and offers physiological advantages over ex vivo chamber-based approaches commonly used to study permeability and PMN migration across epithelial cell monolayers.
We demonstrate two applications of this model in detail: (1) quantitative measurement of intestinal permeability through detection of fluorescence-labeled dextrans in serum after intraluminal injection, (2) quantitative assessment of migrated PMN across the intestinal epithelium into the gut lumen after intraluminal introduction of chemoattractants. We demonstrate feasibility of this model and provide results utilizing the iLoop in mice lacking the epithelial tight junction-associated protein JAM-A compared to controls. JAM-A has been shown to regulate epithelial barrier function as well as PMN TEpM during inflammatory responses. Our results using the iLoop confirm previous studies and highlight the importance of JAM-A in regulation of intestinal permeability and PMN TEpM in vivo during homeostasis and disease. 
The iLoop model provides a highly standardized method for reproducible in vivo studies of intestinal homeostasis and inflammation and will significantly enhance understanding of intestinal barrier function and mucosal inflammation in diseases such as IBD.

Dysregulated intestinal epithelial barrier function and immune responses are hallmarks of inflammatory bowel disease that remain poorly investigated due to a lack of physiological models. Here, we describe a mouse intestinal loop model that employs a well-vascularized and exteriorized bowel segment to study mucosal permeability and leukocyte recruitment in vivo.

The intestinal mucosa is lined by a single layer of epithelial cells that forms a dynamic barrier allowing paracellular transport of nutrients and water ...

Immunology and Infection

Spatiotemporal Mapping of Motility in Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intestines

Multiple approaches have been used to record and evaluate gastrointestinal motility including: recording changes in muscle tension, intraluminal pressure, and membrane potential. All of these approaches depend on measurement of activity at one or multiple locations along the gut simultaneously which are then interpreted to provide a sense of overall motility patterns. Recently, the development of video recording and spatiotemporal mapping (STmap) techniques have made it possible to observe and analyze complex patterns in ex vivo whole segments of colon and intestine. Once recorded and digitized, video records can be converted to STmaps in which the luminal diameter is converted to grayscale or color [called diameter maps (Dmaps)]. STmaps can provide data on motility direction (i.e., stationary, peristaltic, antiperistaltic), velocity, duration, frequency and strength of contractile motility patterns. Advantages of this approach include: analysis of interaction or simultaneous development of different motility patterns in different regions of the same segment, visualization of motility pattern changes over time, and analysis of how activity in one region influences activity in another region. Video recordings can be replayed with different timescales and analysis parameters so that separate STmaps and motility patterns can be analyzed in more detail. This protocol specifically details the effects of intraluminal fluid distension and intraluminal stimuli that affect motility generation. The use of luminal receptor agonists and antagonists provides mechanistic information on how specific patterns are initiated and how one pattern can be converted into another pattern. The technique is limited by the ability to only measure motility that causes changes in luminal diameter, without providing data on intraluminal pressure changes or muscle tension, and by the generation of artifacts based upon experimental setup; although, analysis methods can account for these issues. When compared to previous techniques the video recording and STmap approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of gastrointestinal motility.

Spatiotemporal Mapping of Motility in Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intestines

Recently available video recording and spatiotemporal mapping (STmap) techniques make it possible to visualize and quantify both propagating and mixing patterns of intestinal motility. The goal of this protocol is to explain the generation and analysis of STmaps using the GastroIntestinal Motility Monitoring (GIMM) system.

Multiple approaches have been used to record and evaluate gastrointestinal motility including: recording changes in muscle tension, intraluminal pressure, ...

A Mouse Model of Intestinal Partial Obstruction

Intestinal obstructions, that impede or block peristaltic movement, can be caused by abdominal adhesions and most gastrointestinal (GI) diseases including tumorous growths. However, the cellular remodeling mechanisms involved in, and caused by, intestinal obstructions are poorly understood. Several animal models of intestinal obstructions have been developed, but the mouse model is the most cost/time effective. The mouse model uses the surgical implantation of an intestinal partial obstruction (PO) that has a high mortality rate if it is not performed correctly. In addition, mice receiving PO surgery fail to develop hypertrophy if an appropriate blockade is not used or not properly placed. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for PO surgery which produces reliable and reproducible intestinal obstructions with a very low mortality rate. This protocol utilizes a surgically placed silicone ring that surrounds the ileum which partially blocks digestive movement in the small intestine. The partial blockage makes the intestine become dilated due to the halt of digestive movement. The dilation of the intestine induces smooth muscle hypertrophy on the oral side of the ring that progressively develops over 2 weeks until it causes death. The surgical PO mouse model offers an in vivo model of hypertrophic intestinal tissue useful for studying pathological changes of intestinal cells including smooth muscle cells (SMC), interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC), PDGFR&#945;+, and neuronal cells during the development of intestinal obstruction.

Intestinal obstructions are a partial or complete blockage of the intestine that can cause severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and preventing the passage of stool. This procedure for creating intestinal partial obsructions in mice is reliable in studying the mechanisms underlying pathological cell growth and death in the intestine.

Intestinal obstructions, that impede or block peristaltic movement, can be caused by abdominal adhesions and most gastrointestinal (GI) diseases including ...

Mouse Ileal Loop Model: A Surgical Model to Study Intestinal Permeability in the Mouse

Source: Boerner, K., et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/v/62093">Functional Assessment of Intestinal Permeability and Neutrophil Transepithelial Migration in Mice using a Standardized Intestinal Loop Model.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (2021)
This video demonstrates the generation of an ileal loop model to study intestinal permeability in a mouse model. This method provides a live model to understand the epithelial barrier function and consequent immune response.

Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates

Summary

Explore More Videos

Functional Assessment of Intestinal Motility and Gut Wall Inflammation in Rodents: Analyses in a Standardized Model of Intestinal Manipulation

Fabrication and Implantation of Miniature Dual-element Strain Gages for Measuring In Vivo Gastrointestinal Contractions in Rodents.

In vitro Functional Characterization of Mouse Colorectal Afferent Endings

Gastrointestinal Motility Monitor (GIMM)

Ex Vivo Intestinal Sacs to Assess Mucosal Permeability in Models of Gastrointestinal Disease

Video Imaging and Spatiotemporal Maps to Analyze Gastrointestinal Motility in Mice

Functional Assessment of Intestinal Permeability and Neutrophil Transepithelial Migration in Mice using a Standardized Intestinal Loop Model

Spatiotemporal Mapping of Motility in Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intestines

A Mouse Model of Intestinal Partial Obstruction

Mouse Ileal Loop Model: A Surgical Model to Study Intestinal Permeability in the Mouse