Name: studying murine small bowel mechanosensing of luminal particulates
Uploaded: 2022-03-18T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates at JoVE.com

We thank Mrs. Lyndsay Busby for administrative assistance and Mr. Joel Pino for media support. NIH grants supported this work: DK123549, AT010875, DK052766, DK128913, and Mayo Clinic Center for Cell Signaling in Gastroenterology (DK084567).

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Mayo Clinic.
1. Setup
<ol>
	<li>Fast 8- to 10-week-old mice for 4 h. Provide mice with access to water. 
	NOTE: We use wild-type male C57BL/6J mice for all experiments presented here, but they can be performed on mice of any strain, gender and genotype.</li>
	<li>Cool 15 mL of distilled water in a 50 mL conical tube in a 4 &#176;C refrigerator.</li>
	<li>Heat anot...

<ol>
	<li>Stevens, C. E., Hume, I. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Comparative Physiology of the Vertebrate Digestive System. 2nd ed. , (2004).</li><li>Bayliss, W. M., Starling, E. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+movements+and+innervation+of+the+small+intestine.">The movements and innervation of the small intestine.</a> The Journal of Physiology. 24 (2), 99-143 (1899).</li><li>Husebye, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+patterns+of+small+bowel+motility:+physiology+and+implications+in+organic+disease+and+functional+disorders.">The patterns of small bowel motility: physiology and implications in organic disease and functional disorders.</a> Neurogastroenterology and Motility. (11), 141-161 (1999).</li><li>Bush, T. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+alosetron+on+spontaneous+migrating+motor+complexes+in+murine+small+and+large+bowel+in+vitro.">Effects of alosetron on spontaneous migrating motor complexes in murine small and large bowel in vitro.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 281 (4), 974-983 (2001).</li><li>Der-Silaphet, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interstitial+cells+of+cajal+direct+normal+propulsive+contractile+activity+in+the+mouse+small+intestine.">Interstitial cells of cajal direct normal propulsive contractile activity in the mouse small intestine.</a> Gastroenterology. 114 (4), 724-736 (1998).</li><li>Szurszewski, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+migrating+electric+complex+of+the+canine+small+intestine.">A migrating electric complex of the canine small intestine.</a> American Journal of Physiology. 217 (6), 1757-1763 (1969).</li><li>Deloose, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+migrating+motor+complex:+control+mechanisms+and+its+role+in+health+and+disease.">The migrating motor complex: control mechanisms and its role in health and disease.</a> Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 9 (5), 271-285 (2012).</li><li>Johansoon, C., Ekelund, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relation+between+body+weight+and+the+gastric+and+intestinal+handling+of+an+oral+caloric+load.">Relation between body weight and the gastric and intestinal handling of an oral caloric load.</a> Gut. 17, 456-462 (1976).</li><li>Sarna, S. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+and+temporal+patterns+of+human+jejunal+contractions.">Spatial and temporal patterns of human jejunal contractions.</a> American Journal of Physiology. 257 (1), 423-432 (1989).</li><li>Hall, K. E., El-Sharkawy, T. Y., Diamant, N. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vagal+control+ofcanine+postprandial+upper+gastrointestinal+motility.">Vagal control ofcanine postprandial upper gastrointestinal motility.</a> American Journal of Physiology. 250, 501-510 (1986).</li><li>Mayer, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gut+feelings:+the+emerging+biology+of+gut-brain+communication.">Gut feelings: the emerging biology of gut-brain communication.</a> Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 12 (8), 453-466 (2011).</li><li>Alcaino, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+population+of+gut+epithelial+enterochromaffin+cells+is+mechanosensitive+and+requires+Piezo2+to+convert+force+into+serotonin+release.">A population of gut epithelial enterochromaffin cells is mechanosensitive and requires Piezo2 to convert force into serotonin release.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Sciences. 115 (32), 7632-7641 (2018).</li><li>Kugler, E. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+stress+activates+neurites+and+somata+of+myenteric+neurons.">Mechanical stress activates neurites and somata of myenteric neurons.</a> Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. 9, 342 (2015).</li><li>Mazzuoli, G., Schemann, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanosensitive+enteric+neurons+in+the+myenteric+plexus+of+the+mouse+intestine.">Mechanosensitive enteric neurons in the myenteric plexus of the mouse intestine.</a> PloS One. 7 (7), 39887 (2012).</li><li>Won, K. J., Sanders, K. M., Ward, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interstitial+cells+of+Cajal+mediate+mechanosensitive+responses+in+the+stomach.">Interstitial cells of Cajal mediate mechanosensitive responses in the stomach.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (41), 14913-14918 (2005).</li><li>Mao, Y., Wang, B., Kunze, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+myenteric+sensory+neurons+in+the+mouse+small+intestine.">Characterization of myenteric sensory neurons in the mouse small intestine.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 96 (3), 998-1010 (2006).</li><li>McIntyre, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+bran,+ispaghula,+and+inert+plastic+particles+on+gastric+emptying+and+small+bowel+transit+in+humans:+the+role+of+physical+factors.">Effect of bran, ispaghula, and inert plastic particles on gastric emptying and small bowel transit in humans: the role of physical factors.</a> Gut. 40 (2), 223-227 (1997).</li><li>Treichel, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specialized+mechanosensory+epithelial+cells+in+mouse+gut+intrinsic+tactile+sensitivity.">Specialized mechanosensory epithelial cells in mouse gut intrinsic tactile sensitivity.</a> Gastroenterology. 162 (2), 535-547 (2022).</li><li>Bharucha, A. E., Anderson, B., Bouchoucha, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=More+movement+with+evaluating+colonic+transit+in+humans.">More movement with evaluating colonic transit in humans.</a> Neurogastroenterology and Motility. 31 (2), 13541 (2019).</li><li>Camilleri, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+gastric+emptying+and+colonic+filling+of+solids+characterized+by+a+new+method.">Human gastric emptying and colonic filling of solids characterized by a new method.</a> American Journal of Physiology. 257 (2), 284-290 (1989).</li><li>Wang, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trans-illumination+intestine+projection+imaging+of+intestinal+motility+in+mice.">Trans-illumination intestine projection imaging of intestinal motility in mice.</a> Nature Communications. 12 (1), 1682 (2021).</li><li>Woting, A., Blaut, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Small+intestinal+permeability+and+gut-transit+time+determined+with+low+and+high+molecular+weight+fluorescein+isothiocyanate-dextrans+in+C3H+mice.">Small intestinal permeability and gut-transit time determined with low and high molecular weight fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextrans in C3H mice.</a> Nutrients. 10 (6), 685 (2018).</li><li>Miller, M. S., Galligan, J. J., Burks, T. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Accurate+measurement+of+intestinal+transit+in+the+rat.">Accurate measurement of intestinal transit in the rat.</a> The Journal of Pharmacologial and Toxicological Methods. 6 (3), 211-217 (1981).</li><li>Moore, B. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhaled+carbon+monoxide+suppresses+the+development+of+postoperative+ileus+in+the+murine+small+intestine.">Inhaled carbon monoxide suppresses the development of postoperative ileus in the murine small intestine.</a> Gastroenterology. 124 (2), 377-391 (2003).</li><li>Machholz, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Manual+restraint+and+common+compound+administration+routes+in+mice+and+rats.">Manual restraint and common compound administration routes in mice and rats.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (67), e2771 (2012).</li><li>Baeyens, N., Schwartz, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomechanics+of+vascular+mechanosensation+and+remodeling.">Biomechanics of vascular mechanosensation and remodeling.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 27 (1), 7-11 (2016).</li><li>Ye, G. J., Nesmith, A. P., Parker, K. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+mechanotransduction+on+vascular+smooth+muscle+myocytes'+cytoskeleton+and+contractile+function.">The role of mechanotransduction on vascular smooth muscle myocytes' cytoskeleton and contractile function.</a> The Anatomical Record (Hoboken). 297 (9), 1758-1769 (2014).</li><li>Mercado-Perez, A., Beyder, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gut+feelings:+mechanosensing+in+the+gastrointestinal+tract.">Gut feelings: mechanosensing in the gastrointestinal tract.</a> Nature Reviews Gastroenterology &amp; Hepatology. , 1-14 (2022).</li><li>Brierley, S. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Splanchnic+and+pelvic+mechanosensory+afferents+signal+different+qualities+of+colonic+stimuli+in+mice.">Splanchnic and pelvic mechanosensory afferents signal different qualities of colonic stimuli in mice.</a> Gastroenterology. 127 (1), 166-178 (2004).</li><li>Inoue, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diet+and+abdominal+autofluorescence+detected+by+in+vivo+fluorescence+imaging+of+living+mice.">Diet and abdominal autofluorescence detected by in vivo fluorescence imaging of living mice.</a> Molecular Imaging. 7 (1), 21-27 (2008).</li><li>Szarka, L. A., Camilleri, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methods+for+the+assessment+of+small-bowel+and+colonic+transit.">Methods for the assessment of small-bowel and colonic transit.</a> Seminars in Nuclear Medicine. 42 (2), 113-123 (2012).</li><li>Padmanabhan, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gastrointestinal+transit+measurements+in+mice+with+99mTc-DTPA-labeled+activated+charcoal+using+NanoSPECT-CT.">Gastrointestinal transit measurements in mice with 99mTc-DTPA-labeled activated charcoal using NanoSPECT-CT.</a> European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. 3 (1), 1-8 (2013).</li><li>Jang, S. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Size+discrimination+in+rat+and+mouse+gastric+emptying.">Size discrimination in rat and mouse gastric emptying.</a> Biopharmaceutics and Drug Disposition. 34 (2), 107-124 (2013).</li><li>Zhu, Y. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enteric+sensory+neurons+communicate+with+interstitial+cells+of+Cajal+to+affect+pacemaker+activity+in+the+small+intestine.">Enteric sensory neurons communicate with interstitial cells of Cajal to affect pacemaker activity in the small intestine.</a> Pfl&#252;gers Archiv: European Journal of Physiology. 446 (7), 1467-1475 (2014).</li><li>Treichel, A. J., Farrugia, G., Beyder, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+touchy+business+of+gastrointestinal+(GI)+mechanosensitivity.">The touchy business of gastrointestinal (GI) mechanosensitivity.</a> Brain Research. 1693, 197-200 (2018).</li></ol>

The GI tract, like other tubular organs, such as blood vessels, requires mechanical sensors and effectors to maintain homeostasis26,27,28. However, the GI tract is unique in that the physical properties of the materials that traverse it are not constant across meals. Intraluminal contents of various physical properties (solid, liquid, and gas) transit the gut, generating different mechanical inputs to the GI mechanoreceptors. In...

The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a multiple-foot-long organ system, roughly approximated as a tube of varying dimensions and physical properties1. As the contents move through its length, the GI tract&#39;s primary function is to absorb substances critical for life. The small intestine is specifically responsible for nutrient absorption. The small intestine&#39;s transit is tightly regulated to match the digestion and absorption functions, resulting in various motility patterns. Bayliss and Starling described the &#34;law of the intestine&#34;2 in 1899, showing the contractile propulsion program in the intestine known today as the peristaltic reflex; the segment proximal to the food bolus contracts to propel it forward, and the distal segment relaxes to receive it. In theory, this pattern alone could be sufficient to transport material aborally, but over a century of research has painted a more complex picture of contractile activity in the GI tract. Three small intestine motility periods are recognized in humans: the migrating motor complex (MMC), the fasting period, and the postprandial period3. The same patterns have been reported in mice4,5. The MMC is a cyclic motor pattern conserved across most mammals6,7. The MMC has a characteristic four-phase pattern that serves as a useful clinical marker in functional GI disorders7. The four phases, in order of occurrence, are (I) quiescence, (II) irregular, low amplitude contractions, (III) regular high amplitude contractions, and (IV) ramp-down period of declining activity7. The MMC marks the major motor pattern of the fasting period3. MMCs of the fasting period clear up the contents of the small intestine in preparation for the next meal.
The motor patterns of the postprandial period are optimized for the digestive and absorptive functions3. Regardless of caloric composition, initial transit is quick along the small intestine, contents are spread along the length of the bowel, and transit subsequently slows down8. Absorption is optimized by increasing contact surface area and slowing it down to increase residence time. Once the nutrients are inside the lumen, the dominant pattern consists of close (&#60;2 cm apart) uncoordinated contractions (segmenting contractions), with a few superimposed large-amplitude contractions spanning the whole length of the small bowel (peristaltic contractions)9. Segmenting contractions mix the intraluminal contents in place. The occasional large peristaltic contractions propel the contents towards the colon.
The timing of this transition back to MMCs depends on food volume and caloric composition10. Thus, the small bowel samples luminal cues to regulate when to transition between motility periods. Mechanical cues, such as physical properties of luminal contents11, luminal volume, and wall tension, engage mechanoreceptor cells in the GI wall12,13,14,15,16. Indeed, increasing the solid component of a meal leads to an increase in small bowel transit17. We speculate that physical properties, such as the liquid or solid state of intraluminal contents, must engage different mechanoreceptors due to the various forces they generate on the GI wall18.
The gold standard for measuring in vivo GI transit in humans, as in mice, is the use of radioactive tracers measured by scintigraphy as they exit the stomach or transit along the colon19,20. In mammals, the small bowel loops in unpredictable ways making the small bowel difficult to image in vivo reliably, but progress is being made21. Further, there is currently a lack of tools to quantify how the small bowel handles particulates of varying properties and sizes. The starting point here was a gold-standard technique that standardizes the study of small bowel transit22,23,24 and barrier function22. It consists of gavaging mice with a fluorescent material, waiting for GI motility to transport the material, excising the GI tract, segmenting it into several sections from stomach to colon, sectioning, and homogenizing intraluminal contents for fluorescence quantification. We made two improvements. First, we altered the makeup of the gavaged contents to include fluorescent microscopic beads to determine how the small bowel distributes physical particulates. Second, we improved the spatial resolution by imaging the whole GI tract from stomach to colon ex vivo and used variable size binning to standardize our analysis across animals. We postulate that this reveals novel insights into the balance of propulsive versus segmenting contractions during the postprandial phase.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6J mice</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>664</td>
			<td>other mice can be used with this protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection tools</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excel software</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>used for spreadsheet analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent Green Polyethylene Microspheres 1.00g/cc 75-90um - 10g</td>
			<td>Cospheric</td>
			<td>UVPMS-BG-1.00 75-90um - 10g</td>
			<td>&#34;smaller beads&#34; in the manuscript</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent Green Polyethylene Microspheres 1.00g/cc 180-212um - 10g</td>
			<td>Cospheric</td>
			<td>UVPMS-BG-1.00 180-212um - 10g</td>
			<td>&#34;larger beads&#34; in the manuscript</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gavage needles</td>
			<td>Instech</td>
			<td>FTP-18-50-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ software</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>used to extract fluorescence profile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laminated ruler paper (prepared in-house)</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methyl cellulose (viscosity: 400 cP)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M0262</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photoshop software</td>
			<td>Adobe</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>used for image processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rhodamine B isothiocyanate-Dextran</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>r8881-100mg</td>
			<td>&#34;liquid&#34; condition in the manuscript</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xenogen IVIS 200</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>124262</td>
			<td>In vivo imaging system</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

studying murine small bowel mechanosensing of luminal particulates

Gastrointestinal (GI) motility is critical for normal digestion and absorption. In the small bowel, which absorbs nutrients, motility optimizes digestion and absorption. For this reason, some of the motility patterns in the small bowel include segmentation for mixing of luminal contents and peristalsis for their propulsion. Physical properties of luminal contents modulate the patterns of small bowel motility. The mechanical stimulation of GI mechanosensory circuits by transiting luminal contents and underlying gut motility initiate and modulate complex GI motor patterns. Yet, the mechanosensory mechanisms that drive this process remain poorly understood. This is primarily due to a lack of tools to dissect how the small bowel handles materials of different physical properties. To study how the small bowel handles particulates of varying sizes, we have modified an established in vivo method to determine small bowel transit. We gavage live mice with fluorescent liquid or tiny fluorescent beads. After 30 minutes, we dissect out the bowels to image the distribution of fluorescent contents across the entirety of the GI tract. In addition to high-resolution measurements of the geometric center, we use variable size binning and spectral analysis to determine how different materials affect small bowel transit. We have explored how a recently discovered "gut touch" mechanism affects small bowel motility using this approach.

We show representative outcomes from Step 3 onwards. Figure 1 shows the intact explanted bowels, with fluorescent measurements overlaid. The stomach (purple) is laid along the same axis as the small intestine (orange), but we prefer moving the cecum (blue) to the side to prevent overlap with the large intestine (orange). As evidenced in the left panel, this is not always possible due to organ size. We cut the small bowel at ~200 mm to maximize the coverage of continuous segments, but this is...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates at JoVE.com

Studying Murine Small Bowel Mechanosensing of Luminal Particulates

To study how the small bowel handles particulates of varying sizes, we have modified an established in vivo method to determine small bowel transit.

Gastrointestinal (GI) motility is critical for normal digestion and absorption. In the small bowel, which absorbs nutrients, motility optimizes digestion ...

This is a protocol that studies how the small intestine handles materials of different physical properties and how it distributes those materials in space. It's a complementary tool in our study of gut mechanosensitivity. The main advantages of this protocol are that it can be used to study materials or mixtures with different physical properties and that the resolution allows us to resolve regional transits over short intestinal segments.This technique adds to our understanding of gut mechanosensitivity. It helps us understand how the small intestine makes transit decisions based on the mechanical cues it receives from the intraluminal contents. To begin, prepare the gavage by attaching a feeding tube of 18-gauge thickness and 50-millimeters length to a 1-milliliter syringe and drawing 200 microliters of RITC solution or microsphere solution.Next, manually restrain the fasted animal using the one-handed restraint technique, then gently insert the feeding tube through the mouth and esophagus of the mouse until it enters the stomach. Once inserted, slowly expel the syringe contents into the stomach and carefully remove the tube from the mouse. Following the gavage, return the mouse to the cage.Before beginning the dissections, turn on the in vivo imaging instrument so it reaches the desired temperature. After euthanasia, place the mouse in the supine position on a dissection stage and pin its four appendages on the stage to access the abdomen. Next, wet the surface of the abdomen with 70%ethanol.Next, use micro-dissection forceps to pull the skin and make a transverse incision using sharp surgical scissors 1 centimeter above the anus. To expose the intraperitoneal cavity, continue the incision vertically up the abdomen until the rib cage. Gently handle the bowels and appreciate their orientation in the abdominal cavity before manipulating them.Cut the proximal to the gastroesophageal junction, thus separating the stomach from the esophagus and gently unravel the colon, cecum, and small intestine by pulling slowly in the opposite direction. Use micro-dissection scissors to separate the attachments of the mesentery to the bowels. Later, using the forceps, transfer the dissected bowels to the measurement sheet.Place the stomach at 0 millimeters and arrange the bowels along the ruler until 200 millimeters, then cut the bowel at 200 millimeters with micro-dissection scissors and repeat this procedure of bowel alignment. Once the tissue is arranged on the ruler, arrange the cecum to parallel with the tissue, but not in direct contact with it. Place the measurement sheet with the dissected tissue in a dark area so the fluorescence can be preserved until it is time to image.To start ex vivo imaging, open the imaging software. Log in and initialize the imaging instrument to be ready for image acquisition. For RITC gavage, set Excitation at 535 nanometers and Emissions, 600 nanometers.While for green microsphere beads, set Excitation at 465 nanometers and Emission at 520 nanometers. Now, set the exposure to Auto and select the field of view. After ensuring that the intestines have not shifted during transport, place the measurement sheet into the instrument within the field of view.Securely shut the door to the instrument and select Snapshot to photograph the field of view. Save collected pictures to a flash drive for analysis. Next, save individual captures of the fluorescent and photograph images.An overlay of the photograph and fluorescence indicates the location of fluorescent materials in the gastrointestinal tract. Open the fluorescent and photograph image files in picture editing software for analysis. Adjust the pixel size of both images to have the exact dimensions and close the photograph file.For the fluorescent image, use an eraser tool to remove the background and make it transparent. Create a new layer. Choose a black fill to the layer and drag the layer to lie below the layer with the fluorescent image and make an entirely black background.Save the new fluorescent image containing only the fluorescent signal on a black background as a new TIF file. Open the new fluorescent and photograph images in ImageJ. Turn each image into a 30-bit image by choosing Image, followed by Type and 30-bit.Create a merged image of both by choosing Image, followed by Color and Merge Channels. In the dialogue box that opens, select the photograph file for the gray channel and the fluorescent file Under any colored channels. Turn off the scale of the merged image by selecting Analyze, followed by Set Scale and Click to Remove Scale.Select the Rectangle tool in ImageJ. Draw a rectangle around a section of the small bowel while paying close attention to the width of this region of interest, as it should remain constant between all regions of interest. Duplicate the region of interest by selecting Image, followed by Duplicate and select only the channel corresponding to the colored channel.Again, use the Rectangle tool to draw a region of interest over the whole new image and retrieve a fluorescence profile by selecting Analyze, followed by Plot Profile. Open the list of values and copy them to spreadsheet software. Repeat steps from drawing of the region of interest to retrieving a fluorescence profile for each section of the small bowel as described previously on a different ruler row.In the spreadsheet software, multiply each average intensity value by the region of interest rectangle's constant width created in the previous step. This will yield the real intensity value along the small bowel at each point. Shown here are the average fluorescence traces along the length of the small bowel.The distribution of fluorescent material varies according to the material properties of the intraluminal contents. Increasing the number of bins used to sort the same raw data sets reveals granular trace features unresolvable with fewer bins. Smaller bins decrease measurement uncertainty, increase spatial resolution, and better reflect the distributive component of small bowel motility.The geometric center fails to completely characterize the spatial distribution of intraluminal contents. This limitation of the geometric center measurement is evident in the comparison between liquids and larger beads. The fluorescent trace of the larger beads is more distributed, but it averages out to a similar point as that of the liquid, regardless of binning granularity, which highlights the limitation of solely focusing on the geometric center.To account for the distributive nature of small bowel contractions, a power spectral analysis was incorporated in the present study. Plotting the power spectrum demonstrates that as bin sizes shrink, we can observe significantly dominant frequencies in the larger beads spectrum, but not in that of the small beads. Some, but not all, of those additional dominant frequencies are present in the liquid spectrum.The most delicate steps of this protocol are the gavage and the dissection. These should be standardized by the experimenters prior to performing this technique for experimental purposes. This is a terminal experiment, as the animal needs to be sacrificed.When possible, maximize the use of your animal model by performing other non-terminal experiments before this one. Our group has recently used this technique to support our finding of gut touch sets where the gut uses epithelial mechanoreceptors to sense finer physical properties, much like our fingers do.

studying-murine-small-bowel-mechanosensing-of-luminal-particulates

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Protocol for Long Duration Whole Body Hyperthermia in Mice

Hyperthermia is a general term used to define the increase in core body temperature above normal. It is often used to describe the increased core body temperature that is observed during fever. The use of hyperthermia as an adjuvant has emerged as a promising procedure for tumor regression in the field of cancer biology. For this purpose, the most important requirement is to have reliable and uniform heating protocols. We have developed a protocol for hyperthermia (whole body) in mice. In this protocol, animals are exposed to cycles of hyperthermia for 90 min followed by a rest period of 15 min. During this period mice have easy access to food and water. High body temperature spikes in the mice during first few hyperthermia exposure cycles are prevented by immobilizing the animal. Additionally, normal saline is administered in first few cycles to minimize the effects of dehydration. This protocol can simulate fever like conditions in mice up to 12-24 hr. We have used 8-12 weeks old BALB/Cj female mice to demonstrate the protocol.

This paper describes a protocol for whole body hyperthermia in mice that can stimulate fever like conditions up to 12-24 hr.

Hyperthermia is a general term used to define the increase in core body temperature above normal. It is often used to describe the increased core body ...

Orthotopic Small Bowel Transplantation in Rats

Small bowel transplantation has become an accepted clinical option for patients with short gut syndrome and failure of parenteral nutrition (irreversible intestinal failure). In specialized centers improved operative and managing strategies have led to excellent short- and intermediate term patient and graft survival while providing high quality of life 1,3. Unlike in the more common transplantation of other solid organs (i.e. heart, liver) many underlying mechanisms of graft function and immunologic alterations induced by intestinal transplantation are not entirely known6,7. Episodes of acute rejection, sepsis and chronic graft failure are the main obstacles still contributing to less favorable long term outcome and hindering a more widespread employment of the procedure despite a growing number of patients on home parenteral nutrition who would potentially benefit from such a transplant. The small intestine contains a large number of passenger leucocytes commonly referred to as part of the gut associated lymphoid system (GALT) this being part of the reason for the high immunogenity of the intestinal graft. The presence and close proximity of many commensals and pathogens in the gut explains the severity of sepsis episodes once graft mucosal integrity is compromised (for example by rejection). To advance the field of intestinal- and multiorgan transplantation more data generated from reliable and feasible animal models is needed. The model provided herein combines both reliability and feasibility once established in a standardized manner and can provide valuable insight in the underlying complex molecular, cellular and functional mechanisms that are triggered by intestinal transplantation. We have successfully used and refined the described procedure over more than 5 years in our laboratory 8-11. The JoVE video-based format is especially useful to demonstrate the complex procedure and avoid initial pitfalls for groups planning to establish an orthotopic rodent model investigating intestinal transplantation.

Small bowel transplantation has become an accepted treatment option for patients with irreversible intestinal failure. Our experimental model of orthotopic small bowel transplantation in rats serves as a reliable tool to address underlying immunologic and inflammatory processes that complicate intestinal transplantation.

Small  bowel transplantation has become an accepted clinical option for patients with  short gut syndrome and failure of parenteral nutrition ...

DNBS/TNBS Colitis Models: Providing Insights Into Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Effects of Dietary Fat

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD), including Crohn&#39;s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis, have long been associated with a genetic basis, and more recently host immune responses to microbial and environmental agents. Dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS)-induced colitis allows one to study the pathogenesis of IBD associated environmental triggers such as stress and diet, the effects of potential therapies, and the mechanisms underlying intestinal inflammation and mucosal injury. In this paper, we investigated the effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on the colonic mucosal inflammatory response to DNBS-induced colitis in rats. All rats were fed identical diets with the exception of different types of fatty acids [safflower oil (SO), canola oil (CO), or fish oil (FO)] for three&#160;weeks prior to exposure to intrarectal DNBS. Control rats given intrarectal ethanol continued gaining weight over the 5 day study, whereas, DNBS-treated rats fed lipid diets all lost weight with FO and CO fed rats demonstrating significant weight loss by 48&#160;hr and rats fed SO by 72&#160;hr. Weight gain resumed after 72&#160;hr post DNBS, and by 5 days post DNBS, the FO group had a higher body weight than SO or CO groups. Colonic sections collected 5&#160;days post DNBS-treatment showed focal ulceration, crypt destruction, goblet cell depletion, and mucosal infiltration of both acute and chronic inflammatory cells that differed in severity among diet groups. The SO fed group showed the most severe damage followed by the CO, and FO fed groups that showed the mildest degree of tissue injury. Similarly, colonic myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, a marker of neutrophil activity was significantly higher in SO followed by CO fed rats, with FO fed rats having significantly lower MPO activity. These results demonstrate the use of DNBS-induced colitis, as outlined in this protocol, to determine the impact of diet in the pathogenesis of IBD.

DNBS/TNBS induced colitis offers an alternative and inexpensive method to study the pathobiology of inflammatory bowel disease. The protocol discussed in this paper outlines the successful application of DNBS to induce colitis in mice and rats and allows one to thoroughly study host-mediated intestinal responses.

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD), including Crohn&#39;s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis, have long been associated with a genetic basis, and more recently ...

Murine Ileocolic Bowel Resection with Primary Anastomosis

Intestinal resections are frequently required for treatment of diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, with Crohn&#8217;s disease and colon cancer being two common examples. Despite the frequency of these procedures, a significant knowledge gap remains in describing the inherent effects of intestinal resection on host physiology and disease pathophysiology. This article provides detailed instructions for an ileocolic resection with primary end-to-end anastomosis in mice, as well as essential aspects of peri-operative care to maximize post-operative success. When followed closely, this procedure yields a 95% long-term survival rate, no failure to thrive, and minimizes post-operative complications of bowel obstruction and anastomotic leak. The technical challenges of performing the procedure in mice are a barrier to its wide spread use in research. The skills described in this article can be acquired without previous surgical experience. Once mastered, the murine ileocolic resection procedure will provide a reproducible tool for studying the effects of intestinal resection in models of human disease.

Ileocolic resection is commonly performed in several human diseases; however, little is known regarding the impact of intestinal resection on surgical illnesses. This article provides instruction on executing the procedure in mice with high success, providing a means to study the effects of ileocolic resection in models of disease.

Intestinal resections are frequently required for treatment of diseases involving the gastrointestinal tract, with Crohn&#8217;s disease and colon cancer ...

Ultrasound-guided Intracardiac Injection of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells to Increase Homing to the Intestine for Use in Murine Models of Experimental Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

Crohn&#39;s disease (CD) is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the small and large intestines. Murine and human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have immunosuppressive potential and have been shown to suppress inflammation in mouse models of intestinal inflammation, even though the route of administration can limit their homing and effectiveness 1,3,4,5. Local application of MSCs to colonic injury models has shown greater efficacy at ameliorating inflammation in the colon. However, there is paucity of data on techniques to enhance the localization of human bone marrow-derived MSCs (hMSCs) to the small intestine, the site of inflammation in the SAMP-1/YitFc (SAMP) model of experimental Crohn&#39;s disease. This work describes a novel technique for the ultrasound-guided intracardiac injection of hMSCs in SAMP mice, a well-characterized spontaneous model of chronic intestinal inflammation. Sex- and age-matched, inflammation-free AKR/J (AKR) mice were used as controls. To analyze the biodistribution and the localization, hMSCs were transduced with a lentivirus containing a triple reporter. The triple reporter consisted of firefly luciferase (fl), for bioluminescent imaging; monomeric red fluorescent protein (mrfp), for cell sorting; and truncated herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (ttk), for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. The results of this study show that 24 h after the intracardiac administration, hMSCs localize in the small intestine of SAMP mice as opposed to inflammation-free AKR mice. This novel, ultrasound-guided injection of hMSCs in the left ventricle of SAMP mice ensures a high success rate of cell delivery, allowing for the rapid recovery of mice with minimal morbidity and mortality. This technique could be a useful method for the enhanced localization of MSCs in other models of small-intestinal inflammation, such as TNF&#916;RE6. Future studies will determine if the increased localization of hMSCs by intra-arterial delivery can lead to increased therapeutic efficacy.

Murine studies in models of colonic inflammation have demonstrated that a small percentage (1 - 5%) of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) injected intravenously or intraperitoneally home to the inflamed colon1,2. This study shows that ultrasound-guided intracardiac injections of MSCs result in increased localization to the intestine.

Crohn&#39;s disease (CD) is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the small and large intestines. Murine and human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have ...

In Vivo Evaluation of Fracture Callus Development During Bone Healing in Mice Using an MRI-compatible Osteosynthesis Device for the Mouse Femur

Endochondral fracture healing is a complex process involving the development of fibrous, cartilaginous, and osseous tissue in the fracture callus. The amount of the different tissues in the callus provides important information on the fracture healing progress. Available in vivo techniques to longitudinally monitor the callus tissue development in preclinical fracture-healing studies using small animals include digital radiography and &#181;CT imaging. However, both techniques are only able to distinguish between mineralized and non-mineralized tissue. Consequently, it is impossible to discriminate cartilage from fibrous tissue. In contrast, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) visualizes anatomical structures based on their water content and might therefore be able to noninvasively identify soft tissue and cartilage in the fracture callus. Here, we report the use of an MRI-compatible external fixator for the mouse femur to allow MRI scans during bone regeneration in mice. The experiments demonstrated that the fixator and a custom-made mounting device allow repetitive MRI scans, thus enabling longitudinal analysis of fracture-callus tissue development.

In Vivo Evaluation of Fracture Callus Development During Bone Healing in Mice Using an MRI-compatible Osteosynthesis Device for the Mouse Femur

The evaluation of tissue development in the fracture callus during endochondral bone healing is essential to monitor the healing process. Here, we report the use of a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-compatible external fixator for the mouse femur to allow MRI scans during bone regeneration in mice.

Endochondral fracture healing is a complex process involving the development of fibrous, cartilaginous, and osseous tissue in the fracture callus. The ...

An Efficient Sieving Method to Isolate Intact Glomeruli from Adult Rat Kidney

Preservation of glomerular structure and function is pivotal in the prevention of glomerulonephritis, a category of kidney disease characterized by proteinuria which can eventually lead to chronic and end-stage renal disease. The glomerulus is a complex apparatus responsible for the filtration of plasma from the body. In disease, structural integrity is lost and allows for the abnormal leakage of plasma contents into the urine. A method to isolate and examine glomeruli in culture is critical for the study of these diseases. In this protocol, an efficient method of retrieving intact glomeruli from adult rat kidneys while conserving structural and morphological characteristics is described. This process is capable of generating high yields of glomeruli per kidney with minimal contamination from other nephron segments. With these glomeruli, injury conditions can be mimicked by incubating them with a variety of chemical toxins, including protamine sulfate, which causes foot process effacement and proteinuria in animal models. Degree of injury can be assessed using transmission electron microscopy, immunofluorescence staining, and western blotting. Nephrin and Wilms Tumor 1 (WT1) levels can also be assessed from these cultures. Due to the ease and flexibility of this protocol, the isolated glomeruli can be utilized as described or in a way that best suits the needs of the researcher to help better study glomerular health and structure in diseased states.

The main focus of this protocol is to efficiently isolate viable primary glomeruli cultures with minimal contaminants for use in a variety of downstream applications. The isolated glomeruli retain structural relationships between component cell types and can be cultured ex vivo for a short time.

Preservation of glomerular structure and function is pivotal in the prevention of glomerulonephritis, a category of kidney disease characterized by ...

Continuous Blood Sampling in Small Animal Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography Enables the Measurement of the Arterial Input Function

For quantitative analysis and bio-kinetic modeling of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) data, the determination of the temporal blood time-activity concentration also known as arterial input function (AIF) is a key point, especially for the characterization of animal disease models and the introduction of newly developed radiotracers. The knowledge of radiotracer availability in the blood helps to interpret PET/CT-derived data of tissue activity. For this purpose, online blood sampling during the PET/CT imaging is advisable to measure the AIF. In contrast to manual blood sampling and image-derived approaches, continuous online blood sampling has several advantages. Besides the minimized blood loss, there is an improved resolution and a superior accuracy for the blood activity measurement. However, the major drawback of online blood sampling is the costly and time-consuming preparation to catheterize the femoral vessels of the animal. Here, we describe an easy and complete workflow for catheterization and continuous blood sampling during small animal PET/CT imaging and compared it to manual blood sampling and an image-derived approach. Using this highly-standardized workflow, the determination of the fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) AIF is demonstrated. Further, this procedure can be applied to any radiotracer in combination with different animal models to create fundamental knowledge of tracer kinetic and model characteristics. This allows a more precise evaluation of the behavior of pharmaceuticals, both for diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in the preclinical research of oncological, neurodegenerative and myocardial diseases.

Here a protocol for continuous blood sampling during PET/CT imaging of rats to measure the arterial input function (AIF) is described. The catheterization, the calibration and setup of the system and the data analysis of the blood radioactivity are demonstrated. The generated data provide input parameters for subsequent bio-kinetic modeling.

For quantitative analysis and bio-kinetic modeling of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) data, the determination of the temporal ...

In Vivo Luminal Measurement of Distension-Evoked Urothelial ATP Release in Rodents

ATP, released from the urothelium in response to bladder distension, is thought to play a significant sensory role in the control of micturition. Therefore, accurate measurement of urothelial ATP release in a physiological setting is an important first step in studying the mechanisms that control purinergic signaling in the urinary bladder. Existing techniques to study mechanically evoked urothelial ATP release utilize cultured cells plated on flexible supports or bladder tissue pinned into Ussing chambers; however, each of these techniques does not fully emulate conditions in the intact bladder. Therefore, an experimental setup was developed to directly measure ATP concentrations in the lumen of the rodent urinary bladder.
In this setup, the bladders of anesthetized rodents are perfused through catheters in both the dome of the bladder and via the external urethral orifice. Pressure in the bladder is increased by capping the urethral catheter while perfusing sterile fluid into the bladder through the dome. Measurement of intravesical pressure is achieved using a pressure transducer attached to the bladder dome catheter, akin to the setup used for cystometry. Once the desired pressure is reached, the urethral catheter's cap is removed, and fluid collected for ATP quantification by luciferin-luciferase assay. Through this experimental setup, the mechanisms controlling both mechanical and chemical stimulation of urothelial ATP release can be interrogated by including various agonists or antagonists into the perfusate or by comparing results between wildtype and genetically modified animals.

In Vivo Luminal Measurement of Distension-Evoked Urothelial ATP Release in Rodents

This protocol describes the procedure for measuring ATP concentrations in the lumen of the bladder in an anesthetized rodent.

ATP, released from the urothelium in response to bladder distension, is thought to play a significant sensory role in the control of micturition. ...

Establishment of 3D Morphogenesis in a Canine IBD Gut-on-a-Chip System

Three-Dimensional Morphogenesis in Canine Gut-on-a-Chip Using Intestinal Organoids Derived from Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients

Canine intestines possess similarities in anatomy, microbiology, and physiology to those of humans, and dogs naturally develop spontaneous intestinal disorders similar to humans. Overcoming the inherent limitation of three-dimensional (3D) organoids in accessing the apical surface of the intestinal epithelium has led to the generation of two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cultures, which expose the accessible luminal surface using cells derived from the organoids. The integration of these organoids and organoid-derived monolayer cultures into a microfluidic Gut-on-a-Chip system has further evolved the technology, allowing for the development of more physiologically relevant dynamic in vitro intestinal models.
In this study, we present a protocol for generating 3D morphogenesis of canine intestinal epithelium using primary intestinal tissue samples obtained from dogs affected by inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We also outline a protocol for generating and maintaining 2D monolayer cultures and intestine-on-a-chip systems using cells derived from the 3D intestinal organoids. The protocols presented in this study serve as a foundational framework for establishing a microfluidic Gut-on-a-Chip system specifically designed for canines. By laying the groundwork for this innovative approach, we aim to expand the application of these techniques in biomedical and translational research, aligning with the principles of the One Health Initiative. By utilizing this approach, we can develop more physiologically relevant dynamic in vitro models for studying intestinal physiology in both dogs and humans. This has significant implications for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, as it can aid in the development of more effective treatments for intestinal diseases in both species.

Author Spotlight: Development and Application of a Canine IBD Gut-on-a-Chip Model for 3D Intestinal Morphogenesis Studies 

Integration of canine intestinal organoids and a Gut-on-a-Chip microfluidic system offers relevant translational models for human intestinal diseases. Protocols presented allow for 3D morphogenesis and dynamic in vitro modeling of the gut, aiding in the development of effective treatments for intestinal diseases in dogs and humans with One Health.

Canine intestines possess similarities in anatomy, microbiology, and physiology to those of humans, and dogs naturally develop spontaneous intestinal ...