We would like to thank Dr. Elif Kamber-Kaya for her help to establish the protocol in the lab. Dr. Guy Salvesen kindly provided the DriceC211A mutant9. This work was funded by a MIRA award from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) under grant number 2R35GM118330. The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

1. Recombinant caspase expression in bacteria
<ol>
	<li>Clone the gene of interest (Caspase or putative substrate) into a bacterial expression vector with N- and/or C-terminal tag(s) using standard protocols23. 
	NOTE: Tags can increase the solubility of the recombinant proteins and are used for purification of the recombinant proteins. Here, Dronc, Drice, and their catalytic mutants are cloned into the vector pET28a, which provides an N-terminal 6xHis tag (pET28a-6xHis-Droncwt, pET28a-6xHis-DroncC318A, pET28a-6xHis-Dricewt, pET28a-6xHis-DriceC211A); (for primer information see Supplementary Table 1).</li>
	<li>Transform the vectors with the genes of interest into competent BL21 (DE3) pLysS E. coli cells using standard procedures23,24. Plate the transformation mixture on LB agar plates with the appropriate antibiotic (kanamycin in case of pET28a) to select transformed bacteria. (Refer to Supplementary Table 2.)</li>
	<li>Pick a colony from the plate and inoculate in 5 mL of LB medium containing the appropriate antibiotic to grow overnight at 37 &#730;C at 220 rpm on a shaking platform.</li>
	<li>On the next day, prepare 30-50 mL (per sample) of LB medium with antibiotic and add 1 mL of the overnight grown culture. The optical density at 600 nm (OD600) using a bio photometer/spectrophotometer should be between 0.1 and 0.2.</li>
	<li>Grow the culture at 37 &#730;C at 220 rpm on a shaking platform until OD600 reaches 0.6. Check the OD600 every hour until it reaches 0.6. This takes about 2 to 3 h.</li>
	<li>To induce protein (caspase) expression, add IPTG to a final concentration of 0.1-0.2 mM (dilute 1:1,000-1:500 from IPTG stock, see Supplementary Table 2).</li>
	<li>Grow the cultures for 3 h at 30 &#730;C at 220 rpm. 
	NOTE: Time and temperature are dependent on what kind of protein is being expressed and its solubility. These conditions may need to be adjusted if different caspases or substrates are expressed.</li>
	<li>After 3 h, spin down the cultures in 50 mL centrifuge tubes for 20 min at 4 &#730;C at 2,000 x g. Discard the supernatant and proceed with the pellet. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The protocol can be stopped at this point and continued later. Bacterial pellets can be frozen at -80 &#730;C.</li>
</ol>
2. Small-scale recombinant caspases extraction
<ol>
	<li>Remove the frozen tubes with the pelleted cultures from -80 &#730;C storage and keep them on ice for 10 min to soften the pellet.</li>
	<li>After 10 min, add 0.6 mL of bacterial cell lysis buffer (Supplementary Table 2) supplemented with freshly added protease inhibitors, 10 mg/mL of lysozyme and 50 U/mL of benzonase into the pellet-containing tubes using a pipette controller with a 1 mL serological pipette.</li>
	<li>With the same pipette tip, dissolve the pellet by pipetting up and down until a clear pale-yellow solution without any pellet particles is visible. Incubate for 30 min on ice.</li>
	<li>Transfer the lysate into appropriate centrifuge tubes and centrifuge the lysates at 17,000 x g for 40 min at 4 &#730;C.</li>
	<li>Transfer the supernatants into a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube. This is the crude extract containing the caspases.</li>
	<li>Keep the tubes on ice and proceed for purification with Ni-NTA agarose.</li>
</ol>
3. Small-scale His-tagged caspases purification
<ol>
	<li>Add 0.2 mL of the 50% slurry of Ni-NTA agarose to each tube of the caspase extracts from step 2.5. Rotate the tubes on an end-on-end rotator for 1 h at 4 &#730;C.</li>
	<li>After 1 h, add the extract with the Ni-NTA agarose to 1 mL polypropylene columns with the tip intact, placed in a rack. Let it stand for 5 min.</li>
	<li>After 5 min, remove the cap of the columns and let the supernatant flow out by gravity flow.</li>
	<li>Carefully add 1 mL of the wash buffer (Supplementary Table 2) to the columns without disturbing the packed resin of Ni-NTA agarose and wash it through gravity flow.</li>
	<li>Perform the washing step three times.</li>
	<li>For elution of the caspases, place 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes under the collecting nozzle of the columns after complete draining of the wash buffer.</li>
	<li>Add 0.5 mL of the elution buffer (supplemented with 1x protease inhibitors immediately before use) to each column and collect the eluate in the 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes. 
	NOTE: The fine purified eluate will be transparent in color.</li>
	<li>Keep the eluates on ice and measure the concentration of proteins by Bradford assay25. Confirm purity/homogeneity of the purified caspases by SDS-PAGE followed by Coomassie Blue staining26. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The yield of a 50 mL LB culture ranges between 0.5 and 1.5 mg of caspase protein. Given that 0.5 mL of elution buffer is used for elution, the concentration ranges from 1 to 3 mg/mL. It is important to use the purified caspase eluates for in vitro cleavage assays on the same day of lysis and purification as these caspase preparations lose activity over night.</li>
</ol>
4. Expression of the putative caspase substrate in cell-free expression systems
NOTE: In this protocol, Drice, the natural substrate of Dronc, is prepared by both recombinant expression in E. coli (see section 3 above) and by expression in rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL), a mammalian cell-free expression system (this section, see below).
<ol>
	<li>Clone the gene of the putative substrate into an expression vector containing either a T7, T3, or SP6 promoter using standard procedures23. 
	NOTE: In this protocol, DriceC211A is being used as the model substrate and was cloned into the vector pT7CFE1-N-Myc, which carries a T7 promoter for gene expression and tags the putative protein substrate with an N-terminal Myc-tag for detection by immunoblotting.</li>
	<li>In RRL, candidate substrates can be synthesized either radioactively or non-radioactively.
	<ol>
		<li>Non-radioactive synthesis: In a 0.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, add 25 &#181;L of RRL, 2 &#181;L of reaction buffer, 0.5 &#181;L of Amino Acid Mixture -Minus Leucine (1 mM), 0.5 &#181;L of Amino Acid Mixture-Minus Methionine (1 mM), 1 &#181;L of Ribonuclease Inhibitor (40 U/&#181;L), 2 &#181;L of DNA Template (0.5 &#181;g/&#181;L), and 1 &#181;L of T7-RNA Polymerase. Add nuclease-free water to adjust the final volume of the reaction to 50 &#181;L. Gently mix the components by pipetting or stirring with pipette tip, and spin down briefly. 
		NOTE: The RRL lysate contains 100-200 mg/mL of the endogenous proteins. For in vitro translation reactions, add the RRL at 50% concentration (here 25 &#181;L/50 &#181;L reaction).</li>
		<li>Radioactive synthesis: In a 0.5 mL microcentrifuge tube, add 25 &#181;L of RRL lysate, 2 &#181;L of reaction buffer, 0.5 &#181;L of Amino Acid Mixture-Minus Methionine (1 mM), 1 &#181;L of Ribonuclease Inhibitor (40 U/&#181;L), 2 &#181;L of DNA Template (0.5 &#181;g/&#181;L), 2 &#181;L of S35-labeled Methionine (1000 Ci/mmol at 10 mCi/mL) and 1 &#181;L of T7-RNA Polymerase. Add nuclease-free water to adjust the final volume of the reaction to 50 &#181;L. Gently mix the components by pipetting or stirring with pipette tip, and spin down briefly. Dispose of tips and tubes in a radioactive waste container. 
		NOTE: Do not add the Amino Acid Mixture without Leucine. The pT7CFE1 vector uses a T7 promoter for protein expression. Other vectors use T3 or SP6 promoters. In that case, T3 or SP6 RNA polymerases should be used instead of T7 RNA polymerase. Please make sure that the DNA template is of high purity.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Incubate the reaction at 30 &#730;C for 90 min.</li>
	<li>Spin briefly for 10 s and place the tubes on ice. Check the expression level of the putative substrate in RRL by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting/autoradiography. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The amount of RRL extract added to the cleavage reaction should be based on the amount of protein that can be detected by the detection method (either immunoblotting or S35 autoradiography). Proceed to the in vitro cleavage assay (next section) or store it at -80 &#730;C.</li>
</ol>
5. In vitro cleavage assay with substrates generated with RRL
<ol>
	<li>Take the putative substrate(s) generated, as described in section 4. In this protocol, N-Myc-DriceC211A is used as model substrate.</li>
	<li>Depending on the expression level of the putative substrate (to be determined separately by immunoblot or autoradiography analysis, see step 4.4), use 1-10 &#181;L of the RRL programmed with the protein of interest in the cleavage assay.</li>
	<li>Add 10 &#181;g of purified caspase protein generated in sections 1, 2, and 3.</li>
	<li>Bring the total reaction volume to 50 &#181;L with caspase assay buffer.</li>
	<li>Incubate the reactions in a water bath at 30 &#730;C for 3 h. Make sure to include the appropriate controls in the cleavage assay. Here, the catalytic mutant DroncC318A is used as control.</li>
	<li>After 3 h, stop the reactions by transferring the tubes on ice.</li>
	<li>Add one volume of LDS sample buffer containing 50 mM DTT. The reaction is stopped completely with the addition of LDS sample buffer.</li>
	<li>Incubate the samples at 75 &#730;C in a heat block for 10 min.</li>
	<li>Quickly spin, mix by flicking, load 24 &#181;L per sample and run the SDS-PAGE (see section 7) or store the samples at -20 &#730;C.</li>
</ol>
6. In vitro cleavage assay with bacterially expressed recombinant substrate protein
<ol>
	<li>Add 10 &#181;g of purified candidate substrate (here 6xHis-DriceC211A, generated in sections 1, 2, and 3) to a 0.5 mL microcentrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Add 10 &#181;g of the purified caspase proteins generated in sections 1 and 2. Bring the total volume to 50 &#181;L by using caspase assay buffer.</li>
	<li>Follow steps 5.5 to 5.9.</li>
</ol>
7. SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting
<ol>
	<li>Load the cleavage reactions (24 &#181;L) onto 4%-12% Tris-Glycine or Bis-Tris gradient gels (Table of Materials) and perform protein electrophoresis and immunoblotting (or autoradiography if using S35-labeled substrates) to visualize results using standard procedures27,28. 
	NOTE: Here, in this protocol, Bis-Tris gradient gels with Mops running buffer and LDS loading buffer were used. In general, the commonly used PAGE protocols of Tris-Glycine gels run using the Tris-Glycine-SDS running buffer and the SDS-loading buffer work well.</li>
</ol>

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L., Gershon, P. D., Cramer, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-Apoptotic+caspase+activity+preferentially+targets+a+novel+consensus+sequence+associated+with+cytoskeletal+proteins+in+the+developing+auditory+brainstem.">Non-Apoptotic caspase activity preferentially targets a novel consensus sequence associated with cytoskeletal proteins in the developing auditory brainstem.</a> Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 10, 844844 (2022).</li></ol>

The authors declare no competing interests.

The bulk of our knowledge about caspases and caspase function has been derived from intense work in apoptosis during the last three decades. It is very well established that initiator caspases proteolytically process effector caspases, and hundreds of proteins have been identified as effector caspase substrates during apoptosis5,29. In contrast, much less is known about the function of caspases for non-apoptotic processes and which non-apoptotic substrates they are processing. It is conceivable that initiator caspases are key decision makers here. During apoptosis, they activate effector caspases causing cell death. However, to trigger non-apoptotic processes, they may activate different proteins (other than effector caspases), which control the non-apoptotic process. This protocol tests candidate proteins as substrates of the initiator caspase Dronc in Drosophila17,30.
The substrates to be tested in the cleavage assay can be produced either in an in vitro mammalian cell-free expression system such as RRL or by recombinant expression in E. coli. There are several advantages for in vitro expression using RRL over bacterial expression. The RRL expression protocol is simple and fast, allowing many different substrates to be prepared in parallel. In many cases, the RRL extract containing the protein of interest can be stored at -80 &#730;C before use in the cleavage assay (although this needs to be determined separately for each substrate). The putative substrate can be labeled with S35-Met, which allows easy analysis by autoradiography after SDS-PAGE. That is particularly useful, if no substrate-specific antibody is available. Alternatively, if S35-Met labeling is not desired, the putative substrate can be tagged with common tags such as Flag, HA, or Myc tags, which allows detection of caspase cleavage by immunoblotting.
It needs to be strongly emphasized that the success of this protocol depends on the careful and consistent purification of the recombinant Dronc and Drice proteins. Unfortunately, these proteins cannot be stored &#8212; not even short-term&#160;&#8212;&#160;neither in the fridge nor frozen. They lose the enzymatic activity overnight in any stored form. Therefore, they need to be prepared freshly on the day of the cleavage assay. Regardless of the candidate protein(s) being tested, DriceC211A should always be used as a positive control to validate the enzymatic activity of the Droncwt preparation (see Figure 2B,C). Alternatively, the activity of the Dronc and Drice preparations can also be tested by in vitro cleavage of fluorogenic synthetic tetrapeptide substrates2,9,31.
If antibodies are used to detect the candidate substrates, they need to be validated by the user32,33. That applies also to commercially available antibodies that detect epitope tags such as Flag, HA, Myc, or others. Poor antibody quality can obscure important results. Double-epitope-tagging of the candidate substrates on both the N- and C-terminus with different tags is also recommended34. If cleavage occurs, double tagging helps to trace both cleavage products and may help to elucidate if cleavage occurs at one or more sites.
While this protocol easily validates the known biological substrate of Dronc, Drice, there are also limitations. One limitation is that this is an in vitro protocol with recombinant proteins. In these assays, the caspases are present at an unphysiologically high concentration, which is evident from the observation that they can spontaneously auto-process in E. coli. The spontaneous auto-processing usually does not occur under the physiological conditions. This high caspase concentration may cause spurious activity resulting in false positives. False positives can be eliminated by lowering the caspase concentration in the in vitro cleavage reaction. Furthermore, as outlined in more detail below, additional assays are necessary to confirm genuine substrates and to eliminate false positives.
The recombinant caspases may not have the same specificity as they have in their normal cellular environment in vivo. For example, the activity of caspases can be modified by post-translational modifications. These are not present on the recombinant proteins. Furthermore, in vivo, initiator caspases, including Dronc are incorporated into large protein complexes such as the apoptosome. Under the conditions of this protocol, formation of the apoptosome is not achieved. That would require recombinant expression of Drosophila Apaf-1 (aka Dark or Hac-1)35-37 which has challenges of its own. Therefore, in vitro, Dronc may not have the same specificity that it has in vivo.
It is also conceivable that Dronc is incorporated into a different protein complex for non-apoptotic processes. This may confer a different cleavage specificity to Dronc, which could also explain why Dronc does not induce apoptosis under non-apoptotic conditions. Related to this, CasCleave uses the known cleavage consensus sites to predict new caspase substrates. However, it is unknown whether the same cleavage consensus sites are also used for non-apoptotic processes. In fact, recently, it was shown that Caspase-3 changes its preferred consensus site during a non-apoptotic process in the developing auditory brainstem in the chick embryo38. Likewise, if initiator caspases are incorporated into different protein complexes, they may have a different specificity and thus may cleave at different consensus sequences.
These limitations illustrate that it is not sufficient to solely rely on the in vitro cleavage assays described in this protocol. Alternative approaches should be employed to further validate the results obtained using this protocol. Ideally, in vivo assays should be used to address the following questions: Is the candidate protein proteolytically processed during the non-apoptotic process in vivo? If so, is the same cleavage site used in vivo and in vitro? What is the consequence if the cleavage is blocked by mutagenesis of the cleavage site? Is the processing of the candidate substrate dependent on caspases, and if so, which one? What is the role of the cleavage fragments for the non-apoptotic process? These questions can be easily addressed in the genetic model organisms such as C. elegans and Drosophila using standard genetic and transgenic methods.
In summary, this protocol describes a reliable and consistent method to produce enzymatically active caspases, specifically the Drosophila caspases Dronc and Drice. The ultimate goal of this protocol is to examine whether Dronc can cleave candidate substrates in vitro, which were identified by genetic, biochemical, or bioinformatics approaches. As explained in the previous paragraph, additional assays are required to validate these proteins as caspase substrates in vivo. Given the degree of conservation of caspase genes across metazoa, it should be possible to adapt this protocol to caspases from other organisms as well.

Programmed cell death or apoptosis is executed by a class of highly specialized cell death proteases termed caspases (reviewed in reference1). Caspases are Cys proteases that contain a Cys residue in the catalytic site. They have defined consensus cleavage sites and cleave substrates proteolytically after Asp residues (although the Drosophila caspase Dronc has also been reported to cleave after Glu residues2). They are subdivided into initiator (also known as apical or upstream) and effector (executioner or downstream) caspases. Initiator caspases activate effector caspases. For example, in mammals, the initiator caspase Caspase-9 cleaves and activates the effector caspase Caspase-33. Likewise, in Drosophila melanogaster, the caspase-9-ortholog Dronc cleaves and activates the caspase-3-ortholog Drice2,4. During apoptosis, effector caspases cleave hundreds of substrates leading to the death of the cell5.
Caspases are synthesized as inactive proenzymes (zymogens) in the cell. In this form, they contain an N-terminal prodomain, a large subunit with the catalytic Cys in the central portion of the proenzyme, and a small subunit at the C-terminus1 (Figure 1). The mechanism of activation is different between initiator and effector caspases. Initiator caspases (Caspase-9, Dronc) require dimerization for activation, which occurs by incorporation into a large protein complex, termed the apoptosome6. For the incorporation into the apoptosome, Caspase-9 and Dronc carry a caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARD) in the N-terminal prodomain (Figure 1). The apoptosome component Apaf-1 also contains a CARD and recruits Caspase-9 or Dronc via CARD/CARD interaction into the apoptosome3,6,7. While Caspase-9 and Dronc can be proteolytically processed in the apoptosome, this processing is not fully required for enzymatic activity8,9.
In contrast, effector caspases (Caspase-3, Drice) do not carry a CARD in their prodomains and are not incorporated into large protein complexes for activation1. They are dependent on proteolytic cleavage by active Caspase-9 or Dronc1, respectively. The active effector caspase forms a tetramer composed of two large and two small subunits, and thus contains two catalytic sites (Figure 1). Importantly for this protocol, recombinant expression of caspases in E. coli causes auto-processing and activation of caspases, including Drice10 and Dronc2,8,9,11,12, even in the absence of Apaf-1. This auto-processing allows to perform in vitro cleavage assays of candidate substrates with recombinant caspase protein.
Caspases are not only involved in apoptosis, but they can also have many non-apoptotic functions, including proliferation, differentiation, cell migration, neuronal pruning, innate immunity, and others13,14,15. It is currently unknown how cells can survive despite containing active caspases during non-apoptotic processes. It is possible that these cells activate caspases only at sub-lethal levels16 or they sequester active caspases in non-apoptotic compartments of the cell such as the plasma membrane17,18. Therefore, the identification and verification of non-apoptotic substrates will not only reveal how caspases mediate non-apoptotic processes but may also help to understand how cells can survive in the presence of active caspases.
Candidate proteins as caspase substrates can be identified using genetic and biochemical methods. Identified proteins can be checked for the presence of the consensus Dronc cleavage sites. This can be done by visually inspecting the protein sequence&#160;or using more sophisticated online bioinformatic tools such as CasCleave (https://sunflower.kuicr.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~sjn/Cascleave/)19,20. These tools use the known consensus cleavage sites of caspases and structural considerations to predict novel targets of caspases. While CasCleave incorporates the information of verified substrates from human Caspases-1, -3, -6, -7, and -8, it may nevertheless also be useful for the purposes described here as these caspases and their consensus cleavage sites are well conserved. However, because the Dronc cleavage site is not well defined (two studies identified two different optimal cleavage sites, TATD/E2 and LALD9), the candidate substrates are also examined for the presence of other caspase cleavage site, including Drice.
To validate the predicted substrates of caspases, additional assays are necessary. One of these assays is the demonstration that a given caspase can actually cleave the candidate protein in vitro. Here, we provide a convenient protocol for in vitro caspase cleavage assays. Using this protocol, candidate substrates are tested with Dronc as the caspase. They can also be tested as substrates of Drice. Although this protocol is written for the Drosophila caspases Dronc and Drice, it can also be adapted for caspases from other organisms.
The extraction and purification of Dronc and Drice along with the in vitro cleavage assay must be performed on the same day due to the loss of catalytic activity by these caspases. This protocol has been modified and optimized from previous publications8,9,11,12,21,22. In this protocol, four different caspase proteins are recombinantly expressed in the E. coli strain BL21 (DE3) pLysS. These proteins are: 6xHis-Droncwt, 6xHis-DroncC318A, 6xHis-Dricewt, and 6xHis-DriceC211A. Each of these proteins is tagged with 6 Histidine residues (6xHis) at the N-terminus for purification. Droncwt and Dricewt are the wild-type proteins and can auto-process into the active caspase upon recombinant expression. DroncC318A and DriceC211A encode mutant forms of Dronc and Drice that change the catalytic Cys residue to an Ala residue. These constructs are catalytically inactive and cannot auto-process (see Figure 2A). They are used as controls in the cleavage assay. Because DriceC211A cannot auto-process, it is also used as the model substrate for Droncwt in the in vitro cleavage assay described here.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1760-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-His antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>MA1-21315</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse IgG, HRP-linked Antibody</td>
			<td>Cell signaling</td>
			<td>7076P2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Myc antibody</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-rabbit IgG, HRP-linked Antibody</td>
			<td>Cell signaling</td>
			<td>7074P2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benchtop Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5415 R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzonase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E1014-5KU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BioPhotometer</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>#6131</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21 (DE3) pLysS Competent Cells</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>L1195</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>JA-25.50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CHAPS&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C3023-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ChemiDoc with image software</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>Universal Hood II</td>
			<td>For Chemiluminiscence imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemiluminiscence Substrate</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>34095</td>
			<td>For Chemiluminiscence imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cleaved Drosophila ICE (drICE) (Asp230) Antibody</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology</td>
			<td>9478S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable cuvettes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14955128</td>
			<td>Used to measure bacterial growth and protein concentration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>#1610610</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlenmeyer flasks, 1000 mL</td>
			<td>Millipore sigma</td>
			<td>CLS49801L</td>
			<td>For LB agar media preparation and autoclaving</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlenmeyer flasks, 250 mL</td>
			<td>Millipore sigma</td>
			<td>CLS4980250</td>
			<td>For bacterial culture growth and induction.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic Acid (EDTA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E5134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel extraction kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28704</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel tank SDS-PAGE system</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>STM1001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8898</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halt Protease Inhibitor Cocktail (100x)</td>
			<td>Thermofisher scientific</td>
			<td>87786</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>His-Drice-pET28a&#160;</td>
			<td>This study</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Available from authors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>His-DriceC211A-pET28a&#160;</td>
			<td>This study</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Available from authors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>His-Dronc-pET28a&#160;</td>
			<td>This study</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Available from authors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>His-DroncC318A-pET28a&#160;</td>
			<td>This study</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Available from authors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imidazole</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>I2399-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl-&#223;-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FERR0392</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP906-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Agar, Miller (Powder)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1425-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Broth, Miller</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1426-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>90082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microbiological plate incubator</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11-690-650D</td>
			<td>For colony growth after transformation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes, 0.5 mL</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>22363611</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tubes, 1.5 mL</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>22363204</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Midiprep kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>12243</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini tube rotator</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-450-127</td>
			<td>for mixing bacterial lysates and Ni-NTA agarose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miniprep kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motorized Pipette Controller</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F110120</td>
			<td>For using serological pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP330-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ni-NTA Agarose</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>30210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE 4 to 12%, Bis-Tris, 1.0 mm, Midi Protein Gel, 20-well</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>WG1402BOX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE LDS Sample Buffer (4x)</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NP0007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE MOPS SDS Running Buffer (20x)</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NP0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE Transfer Buffer (20x)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>NP00061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaking incubator with temperature control</td>
			<td>New Brunswick Scientific</td>
			<td colspan="2">C25 incubator shaker</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petridish 100 mm x 15 mm</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875712</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plating beads</td>
			<td>Zymo research</td>
			<td>S1001</td>
			<td>For spreading culture on AmpR/KanR plates</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polypropylene Columns (1 mL)</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>34924</td>
			<td>For purification of His-tagged proteins</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision Plus Protein Standards</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>#161-0374</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protein Assay Dye Reagent Concentrate</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>#5000006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pT7CFE1-NMyc</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>88863</td>
			<td>For cloning substrates for RRL expression</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVDF membrane</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>LC2007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>14 mL Polypropylene round bottom tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>352029</td>
			<td>For growing plasmid cultures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QiaRack</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>19095</td>
			<td>For holding polypropylene columns during purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refrigerated High speed Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>Avanti J-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>rRNasin Ribonuclease Inhibitor</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>N251A</td>
			<td>For RRL expression</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP358-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP359-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile Falcon tubes, 15 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-527-90</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile Falcon tubes, 50 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-959-49A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S70903-250G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mL Serological Pipets, Sterile</td>
			<td>celltreat</td>
			<td>229001B</td>
			<td>For bacterial cell lysis in 50 mL tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TnT Coupled Reticulocyte Lysate -T7</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>L4611</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris-base</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP154-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween 20</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Waterbath</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>2340</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Western wet transferring cassette</td>
			<td>Thermofisher Scientific</td>
			<td>STM2001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

in vitro cleavage assays using purified recombinant drosophila caspases for substrate screening

Caspases are very specific cell death proteases that are involved in apoptotic and non-apoptotic processes. While the role of caspases during apoptosis has been very well defined and many apoptotic proteolytic substrates of caspases have been identified and characterized, the role of caspases for non-apoptotic processes is not well understood. In particular, few non-apoptotic substrates of caspases have been identified thus far. Here, in order to facilitate the identification and characterization of potential caspase substrates, a protocol that allows the testing of candidate substrates in caspase cleavage assays in vitro is described. This protocol includes the production and purification of recombinant caspase proteins, the production of the candidate substrates either recombinantly or in a cell-free expression system, and the actual in vitro cleavage reaction followed by SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting. This protocol is tailored for the Drosophila caspases Dronc and Drice but can easily be adapted for caspases from other organisms, including mammals.

This protocol provides step-by-step instructions for the caspase protein induction in E. coli, purification of the recombinant Drosophila caspases Dronc and Drice, the synthesis of candidate substrates, and the in vitro cleavage reaction with candidate substrates (here DriceC211A) and the caspase Dronc. The catalytic mutant DriceC211A was used as model substrate in this assay because it does not have auto-processing activity (Figure 2A) and remains full-length until it is cleaved by Droncwt. DriceC211A should always be used as a positive control to validate that the Droncwt preparation has enzymatic activity.
Figure 2A provides a representative example of the expression and purification of recombinant caspases. Four different recombinant caspases were induced and purified: 6xHis-Droncwt, 6xHis-DroncC318A, 6xHis-Dricewt, and 6xHis-DriceC211A. The purified caspases were run by SDS-PAGE, immunoblotted, and the blot was probed with an anti-His antibody (diluted 1:5,000; followed by anti-mouse IgG, HRP-linked antibody (1:10,000)). The unprocessed 6xHis-Dronc (proDronc) runs at a relative molecular weight (MWr) of 55 kDa (lane 2) and unprocessed 6xHis-Drice (proDrice) has a MWr of 35 kDa (lane 4). Auto-processing of the caspases is visible by the appearance of bands of smaller MWr which due to the presence of the His-tag at the N-terminus represent the large subunits of the caspases (Figure 1). In the case of 6x-Dronc, the large subunit has a MWr of 40 kDa (lane 1). The large subunit of 6x-Drice runs at 23 kDa (lane 3). The catalytic mutants 6xHis-DroncC318A and 6xHis-DriceC211A fail to auto-process and are only detectable as full-length proteins (lanes 2 and 4).
Figure 2B To demonstrate that the bacterially produced and purified 6xHis-Droncwt preparation has enzymatic activity, an in vitro cleavage assay as described in this protocol was performed. As negative control, the catalytic mutant 6xHis-DroncC318A was used. The substrate was RRL-generated N-Myc-DriceC211A, which is tagged with a Myc-tag at the N-terminus. After the in vitro cleavage reaction, the proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE, immunoblotted and the blots were incubated with an anti-Myc antibody (diluted 1:1,000) followed by anti-mouse IgG, HRP-linked antibody (1:10,000)) to detect N-Myc-DriceC211A. Successful cleavage and thus enzymatic activity of the caspase can be demonstrated by the appearance of at least one band of smaller MWr compared to the full-length, unprocessed form of the substrate. Unprocessed, full-length N-Myc-DriceC211A has a MWr of 40 kDa (lanes 2 and 4), whereas the large subunit of processed N-Myc-DriceC211A runs at 30 kDa (lane 3). Lane 1 represents the unprogrammed RRL lysate (no plasmid/transcript added). Lane 2 demonstrates in vitro production of DriceC211A by RRL expression. Lane 3 contains the in vitro cleavage reaction with 6xHis-Droncwt. Lane 4 contains the in vitro cleavage reaction with 6xHis-DroncC318A.
Figure 2C An in vitro cleavage reaction that uses both recombinant and purified caspase (6xHis-Droncwt and 6x-His-DroncC318A) and substrate (6xHis-DriceC211A) according to this protocol, was analyzed by SDS-PAGE and immunoblot. For analysis of the cleavage reaction, the anti-cleaved Drice antibody (diluted 1:5,000; followed by anti-rabbit IgG, HRP-linked antibody (1:10,000)) was used in this immunoblot. The anti-cleaved Drice antibody detects its neo-epitope in the large subunit (23 kDa) of 6xHis-DriceC211A only after processing by 6xHis-Droncwt (lane 1). The catalytic mutant 6xHis-DroncC318A is unable to process 6xHis-DriceC211A in this assay and full-length 6xHis-DriceC211A appears as faint unprocessed band of 35 kDa (lane 2).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64392/64392fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Domain structure of initiator caspases Caspase-9 and Dronc and effector caspases Caspase-3 and Drice. CARD - caspase activation and recruitment domain; Cys - relative location of the catalytic Cysteine residue; L - large subunit; S - small subunit. The location of the N-terminal prodomains is indicated. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64392/64392fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/64392/64392fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Representative results. (A) Immunoblot analysis of purified recombinant 6xHis-Dronc and 6xHis-Drice preparations, probed with an anti-His antibody. Unprocessed (proDronc and proDrice) and cleaved 6xHis-Dronc and 6xHis-Drice are indicated by arrows. MW markers are indicated on the left. (B) Immunoblot analysis of the in vitro cleavage reaction of RRL-generated N-Myc-Drice with caspases 6xHis-Droncwt (lane 3) or 6x-His-DroncC318A (lane 4) probed with an anti-Myc antibody. Unprogrammed and programmed (N-Myc-DriceC211A) RRL reactions are loaded and separated in lanes 1 and 2. Unprocessed (proDrice) and cleaved N-Myc-Drice are indicated by arrows. MW markers are indicated on the left. (C) Immunoblot analysis of the in vitro cleavage reaction of bacterially expressed and purified recombinant 6xHis-DriceC211A with caspases 6xHis-Droncwt (lane 1) or 6x-His-DroncC318A (lane 2), probed with an anti-cleaved Drice antibody. Full-length (proDrice) and cleaved 6xHis-DriceC211A are indicated by arrows. MW markers are indicated on the left. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64392/64392fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Supplementary Table 1: This table contains primers used for cloning in pET28a vector. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64392/Supplementary Table1.xlsx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplementary Table 2: This table contains the composition of buffers and media. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/64392/Supplementary Table2.xlsx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vitro Cleavage Assays using Purified Recombinant Drosophila Caspases for Substrate Screening at JoVE.com

In Vitro Cleavage Assays using Purified Recombinant Drosophila Caspases for Substrate Screening

Here we present a protocol to express and purify recombinant Drosophila caspases Dronc and Drice, and their use in in vitro cleavage assays.

In Vitro Cleavage Assays using Purified Recombinant Drosophila Caspases for Substrate Screening

Caspases are very specific cell death proteases that are involved in apoptotic and non-apoptotic processes. While the role of caspases during apoptosis ...

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1.5K Views.  UMass Chan Medical School. Here we present a protocol to express and purify recombinant Drosophila caspases Dronc and Drice, and their use in in vitro cleavage assays.

Video: In Vitro Cleavage Assays using Purified Recombinant Drosophila Caspases for Substrate Screening

Visualization of Recombinant DNA and Protein Complexes Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for the visualizing of individual proteins, DNA molecules, protein-protein complexes, and DNA-protein complexes. On the end of the microscope's cantilever is a nano-scale probe, which traverses image areas ranging from nanometers to micrometers, measuring the elevation of macromolecules resting on the substrate surface at any given point. Electrostatic forces cause proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids to loosely attach to the substrate in random orientations and permit imaging. The generated data resemble a topographical map, where the macromolecules resolve as three-dimensional particles of discrete sizes (Figure 1) 1,2. Tapping mode AFM involves the repeated oscillation of the cantilever, which permits imaging of relatively soft biomaterials such as DNA and proteins. One of the notable benefits of AFM over other nanoscale microscopy techniques is its relative adaptability to visualize individual proteins and macromolecular complexes in aqueous buffers, including near-physiologic buffered conditions, in real-time, and without staining or coating the sample to be imaged. 
The method presented here describes the imaging of DNA and an immunoadsorbed transcription factor (i.e. the glucocorticoid receptor, GR) in buffered solution (Figure 2). Immunoadsorbed proteins and protein complexes can be separated from the immunoadsorbing antibody-bead pellet by competition with the antibody epitope and then imaged (Figure 2A). This allows for biochemical manipulation of the biomolecules of interest prior to imaging. Once purified, DNA and proteins can be mixed and the resultant interacting complex can be imaged as well. Binding of DNA to mica requires a divalent cation 3,such as Ni2+ or Mg2+, which can be added to sample buffers yet maintain protein activity. Using a similar approach, AFM has been utilized to visualize individual enzymes, including RNA polymerase 4 and a repair enzyme 5, bound to individual DNA strands. These experiments provide significant insight into the protein-protein and DNA-protein biophysical interactions taking place at the molecular level. Imaging individual macromolecular particles with AFM can be useful for determining particle homogeneity and for identifying the physical arrangement of constituent components of the imaged particles. While the present method was developed for visualization of GR-chaperone protein complexes 1,2 and DNA strands to which the GR can bind, it can be applied broadly to imaging DNA and protein samples from a variety of sources.

A tapping mode atomic force microscope (AFM) method for the visualization of plasmid DNA, cytoplasmic proteins, and DNA-protein complexes is described. The method includes alternate approaches for preparing samples for AFM imaging following biochemical manipulation. DNA containing specific protein interacting regions are observed in near-physiologic buffer conditions.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for the visualizing of individual proteins, DNA molecules, protein-protein complexes, and DNA-protein complexes. On ...

Micropipette Aspiration of Substrate-attached Cells to Estimate Cell Stiffness

Growing number of studies show that biomechanical properties of individual cells play major roles in multiple cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and cell-cell interactions. The two key parameters of cellular biomechanics are cellular deformability or stiffness and the ability of the cells to contract and generate force. Here we describe a quick and simple method to estimate cell stiffness by measuring the degree of membrane deformation in response to negative pressure applied by a glass micropipette to the cell surface, a technique that is called Micropipette Aspiration or Microaspiration.
Microaspiration is performed by pulling a glass capillary to create a micropipette with a very small tip (2-50 &mu;m diameter depending on the size of a cell or a tissue sample), which is then connected to a pneumatic pressure transducer and brought to a close vicinity of a cell under a microscope. When the tip of the pipette touches a cell, a step of negative pressure is applied to the pipette by the pneumatic pressure transducer generating well-defined pressure on the cell membrane. In response to pressure, the membrane is aspirated into the pipette and progressive membrane deformation or "membrane projection" into the pipette is measured as a function of time. The basic principle of this experimental approach is that the degree of membrane deformation in response to a defined mechanical force is a function of membrane stiffness. The stiffer the membrane is, the slower the rate of membrane deformation and the shorter the steady-state aspiration length.The technique can be performed on isolated cells, both in suspension and substrate-attached, large organelles, and liposomes.
Analysis is performed by comparing maximal membrane deformations achieved under a given pressure for different cell populations or experimental conditions. A "stiffness coefficient" is estimated by plotting the aspirated length of membrane deformation as a function of the applied pressure. Furthermore, the data can be further analyzed to estimate the Young's modulus of the cells (E), the most common parameter to characterize stiffness of materials. It is important to note that plasma membranes of eukaryotic cells can be viewed as a bi-component system where membrane lipid bilayer is underlied by the sub-membrane cytoskeleton and that it is the cytoskeleton that constitutes the mechanical scaffold of the membrane and dominates the deformability of the cellular envelope. This approach, therefore, allows probing the biomechanical properties of the sub-membrane cytoskeleton.

Here we describe a quick and simple method to measure cell stiffness. The general principle of this approach is to measure membrane deformation in response to well-defined negative pressure applied through a micropipette to the cell surface. This method provides a powerful tool to study biomechanical properties of substrate-attached cells.

Growing number of studies show that biomechanical properties of individual cells play major roles in multiple cellular functions, including cell ...

Flexural Rigidity Measurements of Biopolymers Using Gliding Assays

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers which play a role in cell division, cell mechanics, and intracellular transport. Each of these functions requires microtubules that are stiff and straight enough to span a significant fraction of the cell diameter. As a result, the microtubule persistence length, a measure of stiffness, has been actively studied for the past two decades1. Nonetheless, open questions remain: short microtubules are 10-50 times less stiff than long microtubules2-4, and even long microtubules have measured persistence lengths which vary by an order of magnitude5-9.
	Here, we present a method to measure microtubule persistence length. The method is based on a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay10. By combining sparse fluorescent labeling of individual microtubules with single particle tracking of individual fluorophores attached to the microtubule, the gliding trajectories of single microtubules are tracked with nanometer-level precision. The persistence length of the trajectories is the same as the persistence length of the microtubule under the conditions used11. An automated tracking routine is used to create microtubule trajectories from fluorophores attached to individual microtubules, and the persistence length of this trajectory is calculated using routines written in IDL.
	This technique is rapidly implementable, and capable of measuring the persistence length of 100 microtubules in one day of experimentation. The method can be extended to measure persistence length under a variety of conditions, including persistence length as a function of length along microtubules. Moreover, the analysis routines used can be extended to myosin-based acting gliding assays, to measure the persistence length of actin filaments as well.

A method to measure the persistence length or flexural rigidity of biopolymers is described. The method uses a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay to experimentally determine the persistence length of individual microtubules and is adaptable to actin-based gliding assays.

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers which  play a role in cell division, cell mechanics, and intracellular transport. Each of these functions requires ...

Systematic Analysis of In Vitro Cell Rolling Using a Multi-well Plate Microfluidic System

A major challenge for cell-based therapy is the inability to systemically target a large quantity of viable cells with high efficiency to tissues of interest following intravenous or intraarterial infusion. Consequently, increasing cell homing is currently studied as a strategy to improve cell therapy. Cell rolling on the vascular endothelium is an important step in the process of cell homing and can be probed in-vitro using a parallel plate flow chamber (PPFC). However, this is an extremely tedious, low throughput assay, with poorly controlled flow conditions. Instead, we used a multi-well plate microfluidic system that enables study of cellular rolling properties in a higher throughput under precisely controlled, physiologically relevant shear flow1,2. In this paper, we show how the rolling properties of HL-60 (human promyelocytic leukemia) cells on P- and E-selectin-coated surfaces as well as on cell monolayer-coated surfaces can be readily examined. To better simulate inflammatory conditions, the microfluidic channel surface was coated with endothelial cells (ECs), which were then activated with tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF-&#945;), significantly increasing interactions with HL-60 cells under dynamic conditions. The enhanced throughput and integrated multi-parameter software analysis platform, that permits rapid analysis of parameters such as rolling velocities and rolling path, are important advantages for assessing cell rolling properties in-vitro. Allowing rapid and accurate analysis of engineering approaches designed to impact cell rolling and homing, this platform may help advance exogenous cell-based therapy.

Systematic Analysis of In Vitro Cell Rolling Using a Multi-well Plate Microfluidic System

This study used a multi-well plate microfluidic system, significantly increasing throughput of cell rolling studies under physiologically relevant shear flow. Given the importance of cell rolling in the multi-step cell homing cascade and the importance of cell homing following systemic delivery of exogenous populations of cells in patients, this system offers potential as a screening platform to improve cell-based therapy.

A major challenge for cell-based therapy is the inability to systemically target a large quantity of viable cells with high efficiency to tissues of ...

Using Microfluidics Chips for Live Imaging and Study of Injury Responses in Drosophila Larvae

Live imaging is an important technique for studying cell biological processes, however this can be challenging in live animals. The translucent cuticle of the Drosophila larva makes it an attractive model organism for live imaging studies. However, an important challenge for live imaging techniques is to noninvasively immobilize and position an animal on the microscope. This protocol presents a simple and easy to use method for immobilizing and imaging Drosophila larvae on a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidic device, which we call the 'larva chip'. The larva chip is comprised of a snug-fitting PDMS microchamber that is attached to a thin glass coverslip, which, upon application of a vacuum via a syringe, immobilizes the animal and brings ventral structures such as the nerve cord, segmental nerves, and body wall muscles, within close proximity to the coverslip. This allows for high-resolution imaging, and importantly, avoids the use of anesthetics and chemicals, which facilitates the study of a broad range of physiological processes. Since larvae recover easily from the immobilization, they can be readily subjected to multiple imaging sessions. This allows for longitudinal studies over time courses ranging from hours to days. This protocol describes step-by-step how to prepare the chip and how to utilize the chip for live imaging of neuronal events in 3rd instar larvae. These events include the rapid transport of organelles in axons, calcium responses to injury, and time-lapse studies of the trafficking of photo-convertible proteins over long distances and time scales. Another application of the chip is to study regenerative and degenerative responses to axonal injury, so the second part of this protocol describes a new and simple procedure for injuring axons within peripheral nerves by a segmental nerve crush.

Using Microfluidics Chips for Live Imaging and Study of Injury Responses in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are an attractive model system for live imaging due to their translucent cuticle and powerful genetics. This protocol describes how to utilize a single-layer PDMS device, called the &#39;larva chip&#39; for live imaging of cellular processes within neurons of 3rd instar Drosophila larvae.

Live imaging is an important technique for studying cell biological processes, however this can be challenging in live animals. The translucent cuticle of ...

Using Cell-substrate Impedance and Live Cell Imaging to Measure Real-time Changes in Cellular Adhesion and De-adhesion Induced by Matrix Modification

Cell-matrix adhesion plays a key role in controlling cell morphology and signaling. Stimuli that disrupt cell-matrix adhesion (e.g., myeloperoxidase and other matrix-modifying oxidants/enzymes released during inflammation) are implicated in triggering pathological changes in cellular function, phenotype and viability in a number of diseases. Here, we describe how cell-substrate impedance and live cell imaging approaches can be readily employed to accurately quantify real-time changes in cell adhesion and de-adhesion induced by matrix modification (using endothelial cells and myeloperoxidase as a pathophysiological matrix-modifying stimulus) with high temporal resolution and in a non-invasive manner. The xCELLigence cell-substrate impedance system continuously quantifies the area of cell-matrix adhesion by measuring the electrical impedance at the cell-substrate interface in cells grown on gold microelectrode arrays. Image analysis of time-lapse differential interference contrast movies quantifies changes in the projected area of individual cells over time, representing changes in the area of cell-matrix contact. Both techniques accurately quantify rapid changes to cellular adhesion and de-adhesion processes. Cell-substrate impedance on microelectrode biosensor arrays provides a platform for robust, high-throughput measurements. Live cell imaging analyses provide additional detail regarding the nature and dynamics of the morphological changes quantified by cell-substrate impedance measurements. These complementary approaches provide valuable new insights into how myeloperoxidase-catalyzed oxidative modification of subcellular extracellular matrix components triggers rapid changes in cell adhesion, morphology and signaling in endothelial cells. These approaches are also applicable for studying cellular adhesion dynamics in response to other matrix-modifying stimuli and in related adherent cells (e.g., epithelial cells).

Here, we present a protocol to continuously quantify cell adhesion and de-adhesion processes with high temporal resolution in a non-invasive manner by cell-substrate impedance and live cell imaging analyses. These approaches reveal the dynamics of cell adhesion/de-adhesion processes triggered by matrix modification and their temporal relationship to adhesion-dependent signaling events.

Cell-matrix adhesion plays a key role in controlling cell morphology and signaling. Stimuli that disrupt cell-matrix adhesion (e.g., myeloperoxidase and ...

Eye Irritation Test (EIT) for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial (RhCE) Tissue Model

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and accurate assessment of ocular toxicity in man are needed. To address this need, we have developed an eye irritation test (EIT) which utilizes a three dimensional reconstructed human cornea-like epithelial (RhCE) tissue model that is based on normal human cells. The EIT is able to separate ocular&#160;irritants and corrosives (GHS Categories 1 and 2 combined) and those that do not require labeling (GHS No Category). The test utilizes two separate protocols, one designed for liquid chemicals and a second, similar protocol for solid test articles. The EIT prediction model uses a single exposure period (30 min for liquids, 6 hr for solids) and a single tissue viability cut-off (60.0% as determined by the MTT assay). Based on the results for 83 chemicals (44 liquids and 39 solids) EIT achieved 95.5/68.2/ and 81.8% sensitivity/specificity and accuracy (SS&#38;A) for liquids, 100.0/68.4/ and 84.6% SS&#38;A for solids, and 97.6/68.3/ and 83.1% for overall SS&#38;A. The EIT will contribute significantly to classifying the ocular irritation potential of a wide range of liquid and solid chemicals without the use of animals to meet regulatory testing requirements. The EpiOcular EIT method was implemented in 2015 into the OECD Test Guidelines as TG 492.

Eye Irritation Test EIT for Hazard Identification of Eye Irritating Chemicals using Reconstructed Human Cornea-like Epithelial RhCE Tissue Model

We have developed an eye irritation test which utilizes a three dimensional reconstructed human cornea-like epithelial (RhCE) tissue model. The test is able to discriminate between ocular irritant and corrosive materials (GHS Categories 1 and 2 combined) and those that do not require labeling (GHS No Category).

To comply with the Seventh Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive and EU REACH legislation, validated non-animal alternative methods for reliable and ...

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and dampen loads in the spine. The IVD consists of a proteoglycan-rich nucleus pulposus (NP) and a collagen-rich annulus fibrosis (AF) sandwiched by cartilaginous end-plates. Together with the adjacent vertebrae, the vertebrae-IVD structure forms a functional spine unit (FSU). These microstructures contain unique cell types as well as unique extracellular matrices. Whole organ culture of the FSU preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell differentiation phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Thus, organ culture techniques are particularly useful for investigating the complex biological mechanisms of the IVD. Here, we describe a high-throughput approach for culturing whole lumbar mouse FSUs that provides an ideal platform for studying disease mechanisms and therapies for the IVD. Furthermore, we describe several applications that utilize this organ culture method to conduct further studies including contrast-enhanced microCT imaging and three-dimensional high-resolution finite element modeling of the IVD.

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Whole organ culture of the intervertebral disc (IVD) preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Here we describe an IVD culture system using mouse lumbar and caudal IVDs in their functional spinal units and several applications utilizing this system.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and ...

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) Assays

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause inflammation, fever, hypo- or hypertension, and, in extreme cases, can lead to tissue and organ damage that may become fatal. The amounts of endotoxin in pharmaceutical products, therefore, are strictly regulated. Among the methods available for endotoxin detection and quantification, the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay is commonly used worldwide. While any pharmaceutical product can interfere with the LAL assay, nano-formulations represent a particular challenge due to their complexity. The purpose of this paper is to provide a practical guide to researchers inexperienced in estimating endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials and nanoparticle-formulated drugs. Herein, practical recommendations for performing three LAL formats including turbidity, chromogenic and gel-clot assays are discussed. These assays can be used to determine endotoxin contamination in nanotechnology-based drug products, vaccines, and adjuvants.

Detection of Endotoxin in Nano-formulations Using Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate LAL Assays

Detection of endotoxins in engineered nanomaterials represents one of the grand challenges in the field of nanomedicine. Here, we present a case study that describes the framework composed of three different LAL formats to estimate potential endotoxin contamination in nanoparticles.

When present in pharmaceutical products, a Gram-negative bacterial cell wall component endotoxin (often also called lipopolysaccharide) can cause ...

Applications for Open Source Microplate-Compatible Illumination Panels

Microplates are commonly used in the modern laboratory environment for a wide variety of tasks both in small-scale laboratory benchtop operations as well as large-scale high-throughput screening (HTS) campaigns. Though laboratory automation has greatly increased the utility of microplates there remain instances where automation-based instrumentation is not feasible, cost-effective or compatible with microplate formatting needs. In these cases, microplates must be manually prepared. Problematic to manual microplate manipulations is that a number of difficulties can arise pertaining to the accurate tracking of sample operations, data record keeping and quality control (QC) inspection for well artifacts or formatting errors. As microplate well densities increase (i.e., 96-well, 384-well, 1536-well) the potential for introducing errors also drastically increases.&#160; Moreover, for small bench-top laboratory operations there exists a need to improve the ease and accuracy of sample handling in a cost-effective fashion. Herein, we describe a system that acts as a semi-automated pipetting guide referred to as the Microplate Assistive Pipetting Light Emitter (M.A.P.L.E.). &#160;M.A.P.L.E. has multiple uses for supporting compound hit-picking and microplate preparation for assay development in high-throughput screening or laboratory benchtop operations, as well as QC/quality assurance (QA) diagnostic evaluation of microplate quality or visualizing well formatting errors.

Microplate Assistive Pipetting Light Emitter (M.A.P.L.E.) is a computer-driven device that systematically illuminates microtiter wells to provide guidance for the manual preparation of microplates.&#160; M.A.P.L.E. improves the accuracy of microplate preparation while automating data recordkeeping. &#160;In addition, it can assist with examining microplate quality or aid in the detection of errors.&#160; &#160;

Microplates are commonly used in the modern laboratory environment for a wide variety of tasks both in small-scale laboratory benchtop operations as well ...