Name: contact mode atomic force microscopy as a rapid technique for morphological observation and bacterial cell damage analysis
Uploaded: 2023-06-30T13:40:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Contact Mode Atomic Force Microscopy as a Rapid Technique for Morphological Observation and Bacterial Cell Damage Analysis at JoVE.com

Ramiro Muniz-Diaz thanks CONACyT for the scholarship.

1. Bacterial isolation and identification
<ol>
	<li>Isolation of an endophytic strain from garlic bulb meristems:
	<ol>
		<li>Place 2 mm fragments of meristems from previously peeled, disinfected, and cut garlic bulbs on trypticase soy agar (TSA) as a rich growth medium, and incubate at 25 &#176;C for 1 day.</li>
		<li>Based on the morphological differences of the bacterial colonies-shape, size, color, edge, transmitted light, reflected light, texture, consistency, and pigment production-describe the d...

<ol>
	<li>Koch, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+and+form+of+the+bacterial+cell+wall.">Growth and form of the bacterial cell wall.</a> American Scientist. 78 (4), 327-341 (1990).</li><li>Si, F., Li, B., Margolin, W., Sun, S. X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+growth+and+form+under+mechanical+compression.">Bacterial growth and form under mechanical compression.</a> Scientific Report. 5, 11367 (2015).</li><li>Pavlova, M. D., Asaturova, A. M., Kozitsyn, A. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+cell+shape:+Some+features+of+ultrastructure,+evolution,+and+ecology.">Bacterial cell shape: Some features of ultrastructure, evolution, and ecology.</a> Biology Bulletin Reviews. 12, 254-265 (2022).</li><li>Cabeen, M. T., Jacobs-Wagner, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+cell+shape.">Bacterial cell shape.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 3 (8), 601-610 (2005).</li><li>Smith, W. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+morphology+drives+spatial+patterning+in+microbial+communities.">Cell morphology drives spatial patterning in microbial communities.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of United States of America. 114 (3), E280-E286 (2017).</li><li>Volke, D. C., Nikel, P. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Getting+bacteria+in+shape:+Synthetic+morphology+approaches+for+the+design+of+efficient+microbial+cell+factories.">Getting bacteria in shape: Synthetic morphology approaches for the design of efficient microbial cell factories.</a> Advanced Biosystems. 2 (11), 1800111 (2018).</li><li>Mi, L., Ning, X., Lianqing, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peak+force+tapping+atomic+force+microscopy+for+advancing+cell+and+molecular+biology.">Peak force tapping atomic force microscopy for advancing cell and molecular biology.</a> Nanoscale. 13 (18), 8358-8375 (2021).</li><li>Hoffman, C. S., Winston, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+ten-minute+DNA+preparation+from+yeast+efficiently+releases+autonomous+plasmids+for+transformation+of+Escherichia+coli.">A ten-minute DNA preparation from yeast efficiently releases autonomous plasmids for transformation of Escherichia coli.</a> Gene. 57 (2-3), 267-272 (1987).</li><li>Weisburg, W. G., Barns, S. M., Pelletier, D. A., Lane, D. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Basic+local+alignment+search+tool.">Basic local alignment search tool.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 215 (3), 403-410 (1990).</li><li>Stackebrandt, E., Ebers, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taxonomic+parameter+revisited:+Tarnished+gold+standards.">Taxonomic parameter revisited: Tarnished gold standards.</a> Microbiology Today. 33, 152-155 (2006).</li><li>Mu&#241;iz Diaz, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-step+triethylamine-based+synthesis+of+MgO+nanoparticles+and+their+antibacterial+effect+against+pathogenic+bacteria.">Two-step triethylamine-based synthesis of MgO nanoparticles and their antibacterial effect against pathogenic bacteria.</a> Nanomaterials. 11 (2), 410 (2021).</li><li>Andrews, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+minimum+inhibitory+concentrations.">Determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations.</a> Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 48, 5-16 (2001).</li><li>Sarker, S. D., Nahar, L., Kumarasamy, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microtitre+plate-based+antibacterial+assay+incorporating+resazurin+as+an+indicator+of+cell+growth,+and+its+application+in+the+in+vitro+antibacterial+screening+of+phytochemicals.">Microtitre plate-based antibacterial assay incorporating resazurin as an indicator of cell growth, and its application in the in vitro antibacterial screening of phytochemicals.</a> Methods. 42 (4), 321-324 (2007).</li><li>Giesbrecht, P., Kersten, T., Maidhof, H., Wecke, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Staphylococcal+cell+wall:+Morphogenesis+and+fatal+variations+in+the+presence+of+penicillin.">Staphylococcal cell wall: Morphogenesis and fatal variations in the presence of penicillin.</a> Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 62 (4), 1371-1414 (1998).</li><li>Yamada, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=autolysin+ring+associated+with+cell+separation+of+Staphylococcus+aureus.">autolysin ring associated with cell separation of Staphylococcus aureus.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 178 (6), 1565-1571 (1996).</li><li>Zuttion, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anti-adhesive+effect+of+glycoclusters+on+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+bacteria+adhesion+to+epithelial+cells+studied+by+AFM+single+cell+force+spectroscopy.">The anti-adhesive effect of glycoclusters on Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria adhesion to epithelial cells studied by AFM single cell force spectroscopy.</a> Nanoscale. 10 (26), 12771-12778 (2018).</li><li>Kahli, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+growth+conditions+on+Pseudomonas+fluorescens+morphology+characterized+by+atomic+force+microscopy.">Impact of growth conditions on Pseudomonas fluorescens morphology characterized by atomic force microscopy.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (17), 9579 (2022).</li><li>Kambli, P., Valavade, A., Kothari, D. C., Kelkar-Mane, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphostructural+changes+induced+in+E.+coli+exposed+to+copper+ions+in+water+at+increasing+concentrations.">Morphostructural changes induced in E. coli exposed to copper ions in water at increasing concentrations.</a> World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 4 (10), 837-852 (2015).</li><li>Kochan, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=et+al.+In+vivo+atomic+force+microscopy-infrared+spectroscopy+of+bacteria.">et al. In vivo atomic force microscopy-infrared spectroscopy of bacteria.</a> Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 15, 140 (2018).</li><li>Stoimenov, P. K., Klinger, R. L., Marchin, G. L., Klabunde, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metal+oxide+nanoparticles+as+bactericidal+agents.">Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents.</a> Langmuir. 18, 6679-6686 (2002).</li><li>Lee, H. -. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NaCl+influences+thermal+resistance+and+cell+morphology+of+Escherichia+coli+strains.">NaCl influences thermal resistance and cell morphology of Escherichia coli strains.</a> Journal of Food Safety. 36 (1), 62-68 (2016).</li><li>Song, L. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antibacterial+effects+of+Schisandra+chinensis+extract+on+and+its+application+in+food.">Antibacterial effects of Schisandra chinensis extract on and its application in food.</a> Journal of Food Safety. 38 (5), e12503 (2018).</li><li>Mohamed, W. M., Khallaf, M. F., Hassan, A. A., Elbayoumi, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermotolerance+of+Staphylococcus+aureus+after+sublethal+heat+shock.">Thermotolerance of Staphylococcus aureus after sublethal heat shock.</a> Arab Universities Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 27 (1), 467-477 (2019).</li><li>Shar, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomineralization+of+platinum+by+Escherichia+coli.">Biomineralization of platinum by Escherichia coli.</a> Metals. 9 (4), 407 (2019).</li><li>Baidamshina, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+microbial+biofilms+using+Ficin,+a+nonspecific+plant+protease.">Targeting microbial biofilms using Ficin, a nonspecific plant protease.</a> Scientific Reports. 7, 46068 (2017).</li><li>Ovchinnikova, E. S., vander Mei, H. C., Krom, B. P., Busscher, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exchange+of+adsorbed+serum+proteins+during+adhesion+of+Staphylococcus+aureus+to+an+abiotic+surface+and+Candida+albicans+hyphae-An+AFM+study.">Exchange of adsorbed serum proteins during adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus to an abiotic surface and Candida albicans hyphae-An AFM study.</a> Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 110, 45-50 (2013).</li></ol>

Microscopy is a technique commonly used in biological laboratories that allows for the investigation of the structure, size, morphology, and cellular arrangement of biological samples. To improve this technique, several types of microscopes can be used that differ from each other in terms of their optical or electronic characteristics, which determine the resolution power of the instrument.
In scientific research, the use of microscopy is required for the characterization of bacterial cells; f...

Different bacterial shapes were first noted by Antony van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century1. Bacteria have existed in a great diversity of shapes since ancient times, ranging from spheres to branching cells2. Cell shape is a fundamental condition for bacterial taxonomists to describe and classify each bacterial species, mainly for the morphological separation of gram-positive and gram-negative phyla3. Several elements are known to determine bacterial cell forms, all of which are involved in the cell covers and support as components of the cell wall and membrane, as well as in the cytoskeleton. In this way, scientists are still elucidating the chemical, biochemical, and physical mechanisms and processes implicated in determining bacterial cell forms, all of which are defined by clusters of genes that define bacterial shapes2,4.
Additionally, scientists have shown that the rod shape is likely the ancestral form of bacterial cells, since this cell shape appears optimal in cell-significant parameters. Thus, cocci, spiral, vibrio, filamentous, and other forms are regarded as adaptations to various environments; indeed, particular morphologies have evolved independently multiple times, suggesting that the shapes of bacteria could be adaptations to particular environments3,5. However, throughout the bacterial cell life cycle, the cell shape changes, and this also occurs as a genetic response to damaging environmental conditions3. The bacterial cell shape and size strongly determine the stiffness, robustness, and surface-to-volume ratio of the bacteria, and this characteristic can be exploited for biotechnological processes6.
Electronic microscopy is used to study biological samples due to the high magnification that can be reached beyond light-based microscopes. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) are the most commonly used techniques for this purpose; however, samples require some treatments before they are placed into the chamber of the microscope in order to obtain appropriate images. A gold cover on the samples is required, and the time used for total image acquisition should not be too long. In contrast, atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a technique widely used in the analysis of surfaces but is also employed in the study of biological samples.
There are several types of AFM modes used in surface analysis, such as contact mode, non-contact mode or tapping, magnetic force microscopy (MFM), conductive AFM, piezoelectric force microscopy (PFM), peak force tapping (PFT), contact resonance, and force volume. Each mode is used in the analysis of materials and provides different information about the surface of the materials and their mechanical and physical properties. However, some AFM modes are used for the analysis of biological samples in vitro, such as PFT, because PFT allows for obtaining topographical and mechanical data on cells in a liquid medium7.
In this work, we used the most basic mode included in every old and simple AFM model-the contact mode. AFM uses a sharp probe (around &#60;50 nm in diameter) to scan areas less than 100 &#181;m. The probe is aligned to the sample in order to interact with the force fields associated with the sample. The surface is scanned with the probe to keep the force constant. Then, an image of the surface is generated by monitoring the motion of the cantilever as it moves across the surface. The gathered information provides the nano-mechanical properties of the surface, such as the adhesion, elasticity, viscosity, and shear.
In the AFM contact mode, the cantilever is scanned across the sample at a fixed deflection. This allows one to determine the height of the samples (Z), and this represents an advantage over the other electronic microscope techniques. The AFM software allows the generation of a 3D image scan by the interaction between the tip and sample surface, and the tip deflection is correlated to the height of the sample through a laser and a detector.
In static mode (contact mode) with constant force, the output presents two different images: the height (z topography) and the deflection or error signal. Static mode is a valuable, simple imaging mode, especially for robust samples in air that can handle the high loads and torsional forces exerted by static mode. The deflection or error mode is operated in constant force mode. However, the topography image is further enhanced by adding the deflection signal to the surface structure. In this mode, the deflection signal is also referred to as the error signal as the deflection is the feedback parameter; any features or morphology that appear in this channel are due to the &#34;error&#34; in the feedback loop or, rather, due to the feedback loop required to maintain a constant deflection setpoint.
AFM&#39;s unique design makes it compact - small enough to fit on a tabletop - while also having high enough resolution to resolve atomic steps. The AFM equipment has a lower cost than the equipment for other electronic microscopes, and the maintenance costs are minimal. The microscope does not require a lab with special conditions such as a clean room or an isolated space; it only needs a vibration-free desk. For AFM, the samples do not need to undergo elaborate preparation like for other techniques (gold cover, slimming); only a dry sample has to be attached to the sample holder.
We use AFM contact mode to observe bacterial morphologies and the effects of NPs. The population and cellular morphology of bacteria fixed on a support can be observed, as well as the cellular damage produced by nanoparticles on the bacterial species. The images obtained by AFM contact mode confirm that it is a powerful tool and is not limited by reagents and complicated procedures, making it a simple, fast, and economical method for bacterial characterization.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM EasyScan 2</td>
			<td>NanoSurf</td>
			<td>discontinued</td>
			<td>Measurement Media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bacteriological loop</td>
			<td>No aplica</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>instrument for bacterial inoculation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BigDye Terminator v3.1</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>4337455</td>
			<td>Matrix installation kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bioedit</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>version 7.2.5</td>
			<td>Sequence alignment editor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cary 60 spectrometer</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ceftriazone</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>antibiotic</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>centrifuge</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>to remove particles that interfere with AFM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ContAI-G Silicon cantilever</td>
			<td>BudgetSensors</td>
			<td>ContAl-G-10</td>
			<td>Measurement Media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>eosin and methylene blue agar</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>bacterial culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>ATCC 25922</td>
			<td>bacterial strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GoTaq Flexi DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>M8295</td>
			<td>PCR of 16S rRNA gene</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microplate</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>10558295</td>
			<td>for microdilution analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M&#252;ller-Hinton broth</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>bacterial culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nutrient agar</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>bacterial culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nutritious broth</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>bacterial culture medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>growth of bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pseudomonas hunanensis 9AP</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>isolated from the garlic bulb by CNRG</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sanger sequencing</td>
			<td>Macrogen</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>sequencing service</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ScienceDesk Anti-Vibration workstation</td>
			<td>ThorLabs</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>slides</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>glass holder for bacterial sample analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Staphylococcus aureus</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>ATCC 25923</td>
			<td>bacterial strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermalcycler</td>
			<td>Applied Biosystems</td>
			<td>Veriti-4375786</td>
			<td>PCR amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypticasein soy agar</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>BA-256665</td>
			<td>growth media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ultrasonicator</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer Ultrasonic Processor, 220 VAC</td>
			<td>not applicable</td>
			<td>for mixing the nanoparticle dilutions</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

contact mode atomic force microscopy as a rapid technique for morphological observation and bacterial cell damage analysis

Electron microscopy is one of the tools required to characterize cellular structures. However, the procedure is complicated and expensive due to the sample preparation for observation. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a very useful characterization technique due to its high resolution in three dimensions and because of the absence of any requirement for vacuum and sample conductivity. AFM can image a wide variety of samples with different topographies and different types of materials. 
AFM provides high-resolution 3D topography information from the angstrom level to the micron scale. Unlike traditional microscopy, AFM uses a probe to generate an image of the surface topography of a sample. In this protocol, the use of this type of microscopy is suggested for the morphological and cell damage characterization of bacteria fixed on a support. Strains of Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), and Pseudomonas hunanensis (isolated from garlic bulb samples) were used. In this work, bacterial cells were grown in specific culture media. To observe cell damage, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were incubated with different concentrations of nanoparticles (NPs). 
A drop of bacterial suspension was fixed on a glass support, and images were taken with AFM at different scales. The images obtained showed the morphological characteristics of the bacteria. Further, employing AFM, it was possible to observe the damage to the cellular structure caused by the effect of NPs. Based on the images obtained, contact AFM can be used to characterize the morphology of bacterial cells fixed on a support. AFM is also a suitable tool for the investigation of the effects of NPs on bacteria. Compared to electron microscopy, AFM is an inexpensive and easy-to-use technique.

Images of the morphology and size of S. aureus and P. hunanensis strains, as well as the population organization of both strains, were taken by atomic force microscopy in contact mode.&#160;The S. aureus images showed that its population was distributed by zones with aggregates of cocci (Figure 1A). With an increase in scale, there was a greater appreciation of the population distribution and morphology of the cocci (Figure 1B). The mi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Contact Mode Atomic Force Microscopy as a Rapid Technique for Morphological Observation and Bacterial Cell Damage Analysis at JoVE.com

Contact Mode Atomic Force Microscopy as a Rapid Technique for Morphological Observation and Bacterial Cell Damage Analysis

Here, we present the application of atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a simple and fast method for bacterial characterization and analyze details such as the bacterial size and shape, bacterial culture biofilms, and the activity of nanoparticles as bactericides.

Electron microscopy is one of the tools required to characterize cellular structures. However, the procedure is complicated and expensive due to the ...

This protocol shows the use of contact mode atomic force microscopy to observe changes in cell morphology due to a specific disease or treatment. It is highly recommended to use sealed containers for this procedure to avoid contamination and analyze the fixed sample as soon as possible to avoid aging. Begin by fixing the samples on the slide by gently passing the slide over a flame several times until the sample is dry.Place the fixed samples in a Petri dish and transport them to the atomic force microscope equipment for observation. Next, turn on the computer and the atomic force microscope. Then select the contact mode, ContAI-G probes, and auto slope options in the software.Set the default values for the Z controller by setting the set point at 20 nanometers, P gain at 10, 000, I gain at 1, 000, D gain at zero, and tip voltage to zero millivolts. Using the 70 micrometer scan range head, place the samples in the AFM contact mode. Obtain a quick view of the surface of the area under the probe by using a camera mounted on two lenses integrated into the scan head.Now, choose the desired area by manually displacing it in the XY plane. Allow the probe to electronically approach the sample surface until contact is reached. Electronically adjust the XY measurement plane of the scanner and sample surface by reducing the XY slope direction.Set the standard parameters of the software to one line per second and 256 points per line. Then perform a full scan range of a 70 by 70 micrometer area. Select the smaller area using the zoom tool.Select a new area from the sample by retracting the cantilever electronically and moving the sample along the XY plane. Then perform a new scan as demonstrated before. Next, use the line by line leveling in the tools menu of the image in the filter selection to perform data processing.Optimize the maximum and minimum height in the color bar to obtain the best image resolution. Finally, perform the image analysis using the analysis menu. Select the initial and final points with the desired tool to determine the length and distance.Atomic force microscopic analysis of the bacterial cultures showed that the Staphylococcus aureus cultures were distributed by zones with cocci aggregates. Increased scales showed that there was a greater appreciation of population distribution and cocci morphology. The AFM contact mode images allowed the determination of the size of the cocci which showed an average width of 1.25 micrometers.Pseudomonas hunanensis showed a homogenous distribution on the entire glass support surface forming an adherent monolayer. The cultures were rod-shaped with a length of 1.9 micrometers and a width of 0.9 micrometers. Micro dilution exposure of magnesium oxide nanoparticles of Staphylococcus aureus resulted in the loss of a smooth surface and homogenous contours due to severe cellular structure deterioration.Vesicle formation and cytosolic material release were observed in cultures at higher concentrations than the MIC. Similar results were obtained in E.coli cultures with the controls showing smooth surfaces highlighting its homogenous rod-like shape. The structure completely disappeared at 1, 000 PPM nanoparticle exposure with only distinguishable silhouettes.It is important to perform sample fixing correctly as it is essential for further analysis. The image filter helps provide good image resolution and sample details. Using the fixing method, AFM non-contact modes could be applied which can be helpful in the study of mechanical properties.This methodology could be an inexpensive and useful tool for medical and microbiology research focused on bacterial cell damage analysis.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Analysis of the Development of a Morphological Phenotype as a Function of Protein Concentration in Budding Yeast

Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of phenotype development as a function of protein concentration at population and single-cell levels in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Although this protocol is based on the overexpression of a protein, it can easily be adapted for morphological phenotypes dependent on suppression of protein expression. Our lab is interested in studying the signaling properties of the endocytic adaptor protein epsin. To that purpose we used a dominant negative approach in which we over-expressed the conserved Epsin N-Terminal Homology (ENTH) domain in order to interfere with the functions of endogenous epsin-2 (Ent2 or YLR206W). We observed that overexpression of the ENTH domain of Ent2 (ENTH2) in wild type cells led to a cell division defect that is dependent on the mislocalization of a family of scaffolding proteins, septins.

Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of phenotype development as a function of protein concentration at population and single-cell levels in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of ...

Live Cell Response to Mechanical Stimulation Studied by Integrated Optical and Atomic Force Microscopy

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to investigate cells behavior at sub-cellular level with high spatial and temporal resolution was developed. Thus, an atomic force microscope (AFM) was integrated with total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy and fast-spinning disk (FSD) confocal microscopy. The integrated system is broadly applicable across a wide range of molecular dynamic studies in any adherent live cells, allowing direct optical imaging of cell responses to mechanical stimulation in real-time. Significant rearrangement of the actin filaments and focal adhesions was shown due to local mechanical stimulation at the apical cell surface that induced changes into the cellular structure throughout the cell body. These innovative techniques will provide new information for understanding live cell restructuring and dynamics in response to mechanical force. A detailed protocol and a representative data set that show live cell response to mechanical stimulation are presented.

This paper aims to instruct the reader in the operation of an integrated atomic force-optical imaging microscope for mechanical stimulation of live cells in culture. A step-by-step protocol is presented. A representative data set that shows live cell response to mechanical stimulation is presented.

To understand the mechanism by which living cells sense mechanical forces, and how they respond and adapt to their environment, a new technology able to ...

Micro-Mechanical Characterization of Lung Tissue Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Matrix stiffness strongly influences growth, differentiation and function of adherent cells1-3. On the macro scale the stiffness of tissues and organs within the human body span several orders of magnitude4. Much less is known about how stiffness varies spatially within tissues, and what the scope and spatial scale of stiffness changes are in disease processes that result in tissue remodeling. To better understand how changes in matrix stiffness contribute to cellular physiology in health and disease, measurements of tissue stiffness obtained at a spatial scale relevant to resident cells are needed. This is particularly true for the lung, a highly compliant and elastic tissue in which matrix remodeling is a prominent feature in diseases such as asthma, emphysema, hypertension and fibrosis. To characterize the local mechanical environment of lung parenchyma at a spatial scale relevant to resident cells, we have developed methods to directly measure the local elastic properties of fresh murine lung tissue using atomic force microscopy (AFM) microindentation. With appropriate choice of AFM indentor, cantilever, and indentation depth, these methods allow measurements of local tissue shear modulus in parallel with phase contrast and fluorescence imaging of the region of interest. Systematic sampling of tissue strips provides maps of tissue mechanical properties that reveal local spatial variations in shear modulus. Correlations between mechanical properties and underlying anatomical and pathological features illustrate how stiffness varies with matrix deposition in fibrosis. These methods can be extended to other soft tissues and disease processes to reveal how local tissue mechanical properties vary across space and disease progression.

The stiffness of the extracellular matrix strongly influences multiple behaviors of adherent cells. Matrix stiffness varies spatially throughout a tissue, and undergoes modification in various disease conditions. Here we develop methods to characterize spatial variations in stiffness in normal and fibrotic mouse lung tissue using atomic force microscopy microindentation.

Matrix stiffness strongly influences growth, differentiation and function of adherent cells1-3.  On the macro scale the stiffness of tissues and organs ...

Rapid Analysis and Exploration of Fluorescence Microscopy Images

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized image analysis tools are available, most traditional image-analysis-based workflows have steep learning curves (for fine tuning of analysis parameters) and result in long turnaround times between imaging and analysis. In particular, cell segmentation, the process of identifying individual cells in an image, is a major bottleneck in this regard.
Here we present an alternate, cell-segmentation-free workflow based on PhenoRipper, an open-source software platform designed for the rapid analysis and exploration of microscopy images. The pipeline presented here is optimized for immunofluorescence microscopy images of cell cultures and requires minimal user intervention. Within half an hour, PhenoRipper can analyze data from a typical 96-well experiment and generate image profiles. Users can then visually explore their data, perform quality control on their experiment, ensure response to perturbations and check reproducibility of replicates. This facilitates a rapid feedback cycle between analysis and experiment, which is crucial during assay optimization. This protocol is useful not just as a first pass analysis for quality control, but also may be used as an end-to-end solution, especially for screening. The workflow described here scales to large data sets such as those generated by high-throughput screens, and has been shown to group experimental conditions by phenotype accurately over a wide range of biological systems. The PhenoBrowser interface provides an intuitive framework to explore the phenotypic space and relate image properties to biological annotations. Taken together, the protocol described here will lower the barriers to adopting quantitative analysis of image based screens.

Here we describe a workflow for rapidly analyzing and exploring collections of fluorescence microscopy images using PhenoRipper, a recently developed image-analysis platform.

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized ...

Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule imaging assays which allows adhesion of single virions to glass surfaces with specificity. This preparation is based on grafting the surface of the glass with a mixture of PLL-g-PEG and PLL-g-PEG-Biotin, adding a layer of avidin, and finally creating virion anchors through attachment of biotinylated virus specific antibodies. We have applied this technique across a range of experiments including atomic force microscopy (AFM) and super-resolution fluorescence imaging. This sample preparation method results in a control adhesion of the virions to the surface.

The attachment of virions to a surface is a requirement for single virion imaging by Super-resolution fluorescence imaging or atomic force microscopy (AFM). Here we demonstrate a sample preparation method for controlled adhesion of virions to glass surfaces suitable for use in AFM and super-resolution fluorescence imaging.

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule ...

Design and Development of Aptamer&#8211;Gold Nanoparticle Based Colorimetric Assays for In-the-field Applications

The design and development of an aptamer&#8211;gold nanoparticle (AuNP) colorimetric assay for the detection of small molecules for in-the-field applications was examined. Target selective AuNP based color assays have been developed in controlled proof-of-concept laboratory settings. However, these schemes have not been exerted to a point of failure to determine their practical use beyond laboratory settings. This work describes a generic approach to design, develop, and troubleshoot an aptamer-AuNP colorimetric assay for small molecule analytes and using the assay for in-the-field settings. The assay is advantageous because adsorbed aptamers passivate the nanoparticle surfaces and provide a means to reduce and eliminate false positive responses to non-target analytes. Transitioning this system to practical uses required defining not only the shelf-life of the aptamer-AuNP assay, but establishing methods and procedures for extending the long-term storage capabilities. Also, one of the recognized concerns with colorimetric readout is the burden placed on analysts to accurately identify often subtle changes in color. To lessen the responsibility on analysts in the field, a color analysis protocol was designed to perform the color identification duties without the need for performing this task on laboratory grade equipment. The method for creating and testing the data analysis protocol is described. However to understand and influence the design of adsorbed aptamer assays, the interactions associated with the aptamer, target, and AuNPs require further study. The knowledge gained could lead to tailoring aptamers for improved functionality.

The design and development of an aptamer&#8211;gold nanoparticle colorimetric assay for the detection of small molecules for in-the-field applications was examined. Additionally, a smart-device colorimetric application (app) was validated and long-term storage of the assay was established for use in the field.

The design and development of an aptamer&#8211;gold nanoparticle (AuNP) colorimetric assay for the detection of small molecules for in-the-field ...

Measuring the Stiffness of Ex Vivo Mouse Aortas Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Arterial stiffening is a significant risk factor and biomarker for cardiovascular disease and a hallmark of aging. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile analytical tool for characterizing viscoelastic mechanical properties for a variety of materials ranging from hard (plastic, glass, metal, etc.) surfaces to cells on any substrate. It has been widely used to measure the stiffness of cells, but less frequently used to measure the stiffness of aortas. In this paper, we will describe the procedures for using AFM in contact mode to measure the ex vivo elastic modulus of unloaded mouse arteries. We describe our procedure for isolation of mouse aortas, and then provide detailed information for the AFM analysis. This includes step-by-step instructions for alignment of the laser beam, calibration of the spring constant and deflection sensitivity of the AFM probe, and acquisition of force curves. We also provide a detailed protocol for data analysis of the force curves.

Measuring the Stiffness of Ex Vivo Mouse Aortas Using Atomic Force Microscopy

We present detailed protocols for isolation of aortas from mouse and measurement of their elastic modulus using atomic force microscopy.

Arterial stiffening is a significant risk factor and biomarker for cardiovascular disease and a hallmark of aging. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a ...

Preparation of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms Using Chemical Drying for Morphological Analysis in Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a widely available technique that has been applied to study biological specimens ranging from individual proteins to cells, tissues, organelles, and even whole organisms. This protocol focuses on two chemical drying methods, hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) and t-butyl alcohol (TBA), and their application to imaging of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms using SEM. In this article, we describe how to fix, wash, dehydrate, dry, mount, sputter coat, and image three types of organisms: cyanobacteria (Toxifilum mysidocida, Golenkina sp., and an unknown sp.), two euglenoids from the genus Monomorphina (M. aenigmatica and M. pseudopyrum), and the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster). The purpose of this protocol is to describe a fast, inexpensive, and simple method to obtain detailed information about the structure, size, and surface characteristics of specimens that can be broadly applied to a large range of organisms for morphological assessment. Successful completion of this protocol will allow others to use SEM to visualize samples by applying these techniques to their system.

Preparation of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms Using Chemical Drying for Morphological Analysis in Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM

SEM analysis is an effective method to aid in species identification or phenotypic discrimination. This protocol describes the methods for examining specific morphological details of three representative types of organisms and would be broadly applicable to examining features of many organismal and tissue types.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a widely available technique that has been applied to study biological specimens ranging from individual proteins to ...

Three-dimensional Characterization of Interorganelle Contact Sites in Hepatocytes using Serial Section Electron Microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy has been long considered to be the gold standard for the visualization of cellular ultrastructure. However, analysis is often limited to two dimensions, hampering the ability to fully describe the three-dimensional (3D) ultrastructure and functional relationship between organelles. Volume electron microscopy (vEM) describes a collection of techniques that enable the interrogation of cellular ultrastructure in 3D at mesoscale, microscale, and nanoscale resolutions. 
This protocol provides an accessible and robust method to acquire vEM data using serial section transmission EM (TEM) and covers the technical aspects of sample processing through to digital 3D reconstruction in a single, straightforward workflow. To demonstrate the usefulness of this technique, the 3D ultrastructural relationship between the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria and their contact sites in liver hepatocytes is presented. Interorganelle contacts serve vital roles in the transfer of ions, lipids, nutrients, and other small molecules between organelles. However, despite their initial discovery in hepatocytes, there is still much to learn about their physical features, dynamics, and functions. 
Interorganelle contacts can display a range of morphologies, varying in the proximity of the two organelles to one another (typically ~10-30 nm) and the extent of the contact site (from punctate contacts to larger 3D cisternal-like contacts). The examination of close contacts requires high-resolution imaging, and serial section TEM is well suited to visualize the 3D ultrastructural of interorganelle contacts during hepatocyte differentiation, as well as alterations in hepatocyte architecture associated with metabolic diseases.

A simple and comprehensive protocol to acquire three-dimensional details of membrane contact sites between organelles in hepatocytes from the liver or cells in other tissues.

Transmission electron microscopy has been long considered to be the gold standard for the visualization of cellular ultrastructure. However, analysis is ...

Characterizing Mechanical Properties of Primary Cell Wall in Living Plant Organs Using Atomic Force Microscopy

The mechanical properties of the primary cell walls determine the direction and rate of plant cell growth and, therefore, the future size and shape of the plant. Many sophisticated techniques have been developed to measure these properties; however, atomic force microscopy (AFM) remains the most convenient for studying cell wall elasticity at the cellular level. One of the most important limitations of this technique has been that only superficial or isolated living cells can be studied. Here, the use of atomic force microscopy to investigate the mechanical properties of primary cell walls belonging to the internal tissues of a plant body is presented. This protocol describes measurements of the apparent Young&#39;s modulus of cell walls in roots, but the method can also be applied to other plant organs. The measurements are performed on vibratome-derived sections of plant material in a liquid cell, which allows (i) avoiding the use of plasmolyzing solutions or sample impregnation with wax or resin, (ii) making the experiments fast, and (iii) preventing dehydration of the sample. Both anticlinal and periclinal cell walls can be studied, depending on how the specimen was sectioned. Differences in the mechanical properties of different tissues can be investigated in a single section. The protocol describes the principles of study planning, issues with specimen preparation and measurements, as well as the method of selecting force-deformation curves to avoid the influence of topography on the obtained values of elastic modulus. The method is not limited by sample size but is sensitive to cell size (i.e., cells with a large lumen are difficult to examine).

Studies of cell wall biomechanics are essential for understanding plant growth and morphogenesis. The following protocol is proposed to investigate thin primary cell walls in the internal tissues of young plant organs using atomic force microscopy.

The mechanical properties of the primary cell walls determine the direction and rate of plant cell growth and, therefore, the future size and shape of the ...