This work was supported by NIH&#39;s OD grant R24OD031956. We thank Samantha Jalbert, Jill Ralston, and Cora Anderson for their assistance and support as well as our editor and anonymous peer reviewers for their helpful feedback

All experiments were performed in accordance with the rules and regulations of the Harvard Medical School IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee) (IS 00001365_3). The representative results are shown for both a perfused and unperfused mature albino male Xenopus laevis.
1. Experimental preparation 
NOTE: If perfusion protocol8 is being followed before sampling, skip to step 2.2.
<ol>
	<li>Ensure that the research institution has approved the euthanasia technique described in this protocol.</li>
	<li>Prepare a solution of 5 g/L MS-222 (tricaine methanesulfonate) and 5 g/L sodium bicarbonate (see Table of Materials). The volume must be greater than the volume required to cover the animals being euthanized completely. Check the pH to ensure that it is &#8805;7.</li>
	<li>Perform primary euthanasia by placing the Xenopus in the euthanasia solution; the animal will remain submerged for a total of 1 h.</li>
	<li>Set up the dissection station so that immediately after sampling, all tissues can be rinsed in chilled PBS or 0.7x PBS9 (depending on experimental needs), checked, and trimmed under a 5x (or greater) magnification light. This station must also enable the user to either replace all forceps and scissors or wipe them clean between uses.</li>
	<li>Once the frog has been in the solution for 1 h, primary euthanasia has been completed. Remove the frog and check the loss of pain response by performing a foot pinch.</li>
	<li>Record the appropriate details for the animal, such as species, strain, sex, age, and health status as well as if it was perfused. Weigh the Xenopus and take any additional measurements, such as snout-vent length.</li>
	<li>Place the frog on its back and pin down the limbs proximal to the body (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Using dissection scissors, cut through the skin, up the midline, and then laterally, making two flaps.</li>
	<li>Referring to Figure 2, identify the linea alba and use forceps to grasp it and pull it away from the coelomic cavity. Cut up through the musculature carefully using scissors. Make two flaps out of the cavity wall. Cut or pin all flaps out of the way.</li>
	<li>Identify the heart which will still be beating. Use dissecting scissors to reduce the coracoid bones (Figure 2) to gain better access to the heart. 
	NOTE: If the heart has stopped beating before sampling, it should be noted that the sample freshness has been compromised.</li>
</ol>
2. Sampling
NOTE: If the animal has been perfused, skip to step 2.2.
<ol>
	<li>Identify the thin pericardium and pull it taut with tissue forceps (Figure 3).</li>
	<li>Using the tip of the iridectomy scissors, gently perforate the pericardium, being careful not to cut the underlying tissues. Peel the pericardium up away from the 3 chambers of the heart.</li>
	<li>Use forceps to grasp the ventricle by the apex, identify where it attaches to the auricles and arterial trunk (Figure 4), and cut it below these attachments (Figure 5). If required, trim the ventricle so that no tissues from the auricles or arterial trunk are visible, and light-colored valve tissue will still be visible inside the ventricle. 
	NOTE: In unperfused animals, the removal of the ventricle may qualify as secondary euthanasia.</li>
	<li>The 3 lobes of the liver will be visible (Figure 6 and Figure 7). Grasp the lip of the left lobe (on the viewer&#39;s right) and gently lift it so that the hepatic and cystic ducts are visible (Figure 8). Sample the bottom 1/3 of the lobe below these attachments (Figure 9).</li>
	<li>To gain better access to the tissues of a female frog, it is helpful to remove the ovary. Identify the ovary which is enveloped in a layer of visceral peritoneum called the germinal epithelium. Gently shift the lobes until they are on their respective sides to make the area of attachment visible (Figure 10). These attachments are directly ventral to the paired kidney.</li>
	<li>Using scissors, remove the ovaries as close to the kidneys as possible without damaging them (Figure 11).</li>
	<li>Inspect the medial lobe (also called the anterior lobe) of the liver and note how it connects to the stomach and duodenum through the mesentery and hepatopancreatic duct (also called the common bile duct) (Figure 6, Figure 7, and Figure 8).&#160;</li>
	<li>Sever the mesentery, hepatoduodenal ligament using iridectomy scissors as well as the hepatopancreatic duct where it meets the duodenum. Sever the connection of the pancreas and hepatopancreatic duct to the medial lobe of the liver so that no dark liver tissue is attached (Figure 12).</li>
	<li>Grasp the stomach with toothed forceps and the superior end of the pancreas with tissue forceps. Under 5x magnification, gently tease the pancreas off of the stomach (Figure 13). 
	NOTE: If it does not come away cleanly, the remaining pancreatic tissue will be visible and can be picked off in fragments. Alternatively, the pancreas can be methodically detached using iridectomy scissors and tissue forceps.</li>
	<li>Referring to Figure 14A, identify the urinary bladder and remove it, cutting as close to the cloaca as possible. Discard this tissue.</li>
	<li>Referring to Figure 14B, identify the large intestine and pull it taut to sever the large intestine as close to the cloaca as possible. Remove and discard the entire alimentary canal, severing the peritoneum where it attaches to the spleen. The fat bodies will now be fully accessible.</li>
	<li>Tease apart the fat bodies so that they are on their respective sides. The area over the kidney, where the fat body connects to the peritoneum, will be visible. Grasp the base of the left fat body (on the viewer&#39;s right) and use scissors to cut it away from the peritoneum, leaving a small margin so that the kidney is not damaged (Figure 15).</li>
	<li>Remove and discard the remaining fat body. The paired kidneys will now be fully visible.</li>
	<li>In female frogs or males with distinct vestigial oviducts, grasp an oviduct and pull it away from the kidney and cloaca (Figure 16). Cut the oviduct where it meets the cloaca and continue to pull it away from the kidney, cutting any clear peritoneal attachments as they become apparent. Discard this tissue.</li>
	<li>Repeat this process with the remaining oviduct.</li>
	<li>The kidneys are still covered with clear peritoneum (retroperitoneal)10. Use forceps to grasp the kidneys and sever the peritoneum at their inferior end.</li>
	<li>Lift the kidneys out of the coelomic cavity, using scissors to sever the peritoneum as close to the kidneys as possible without damaging them (Figure 17).</li>
	<li>Under 5x magnification, cut away excess peritoneum and any other remaining tissue (fat bodies, spleen). If the frog is female, ensure any remaining ovary tissue is removed (Figure 18). If the frog is male, carefully remove the testis and check for a vestigial oviduct, which may not be visible without magnification (Figure 19).</li>
	<li>Remove the pins from the animal, flip it onto its ventrum, and re-pin the animal&#39;s limbs.</li>
	<li>Select either hindlimb to sample from and pin the foot of that limb.</li>
	<li>Remove an almond-shaped flap of skin from over the gastrocnemius/tibiofibula (Figure 20).</li>
</ol>

Standardized Dissection and Sampling Protocol for Adult Xenopus Organs

<ol>
	<li>Porro, L. B., Richards, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Digital+dissection+of+the+model+organism+Xenopus+laevis+using+contrast-enhanced+computed+tomography.">Digital dissection of the model organism Xenopus laevis using contrast-enhanced computed tomography.</a> J Anat. 231 (2), 169-191 (2017).</li><li>Ruehl-Fehlert, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revised+guides+for+organ+sampling+and+trimming+in+rats+and+mice--part+1.">Revised guides for organ sampling and trimming in rats and mice--part 1.</a> Exp Toxicol Pathol. 55 (23), 91-106 (2003).</li><li>Kittel, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revised+guides+for+organ+sampling+and+trimming+in+rats+and+mice--Part+2.+A+joint+publication+of+the+RITA+and+NACAD+groups.">Revised guides for organ sampling and trimming in rats and mice--Part 2. A joint publication of the RITA and NACAD groups.</a> Exp Toxicol Pathol. 55, 413-431 (2004).</li><li>Morawietz, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Revised+guides+for+organ+sampling+and+trimming+in+rats+and+mice+-+Part+3+-+A+joint+publication+of+the+RITA+and+NACAD+groups.">Revised guides for organ sampling and trimming in rats and mice - Part 3 - A joint publication of the RITA and NACAD groups.</a> Exp Toxicol Pathol. 55, 433-449 (2004).</li><li>Patmann, M. D., Shewade, L. H., Schneider, K. A., Buchholz, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Xenopus+tadpole+tissue+harvest.">Xenopus tadpole tissue harvest.</a> Cold Spring Harb Protoc. 2017 (11), 097675 (2017).</li><li>L&#337;w, P., Moln&#225;r, K., Kriska, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissection+of+a+Frog+(Rana+sp.).">Dissection of a Frog (Rana sp.).</a> Atlas of Animal Anatomy and Histology. , 213-263 (2016).</li><li>O'Rourke, D. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amphibians+used+in+research+and+teaching.">Amphibians used in research and teaching.</a> ILAR J. 48 (3), 183-187 (2007).</li><li>Jonas-Closs, R. A., Peshkin, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effective+rapid+blood+perfusion+in+Xenopus.">Effective rapid blood perfusion in Xenopus.</a> JoVE. (issue), e65287 (2023).</li><li>Balls, M., Worley, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amphibian+cells+in+vitro.+II.+Effects+of+variations+in+medium+osmolarity+on+a+permanent+cells+line+isolated+from+Xenopus.">Amphibian cells in vitro. II. Effects of variations in medium osmolarity on a permanent cells line isolated from Xenopus.</a> Exp Cell Res. 76 (2), 333-336 (1973).</li><li>Holz, P. H., Raidal, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+renal+anatomy+of+exotic+species.">Comparative renal anatomy of exotic species.</a> Vet North Am Exot Anim Pract. 9 (1), 1-11 (2006).</li><li>Trott, K. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+a+Mycobacterium+ulcerans-like+infection+in+a+colony+of+African+tropical+clawed+frogs+(Xenopus+tropicalis).">Characterization of a Mycobacterium ulcerans-like infection in a colony of African tropical clawed frogs (Xenopus tropicalis).</a> Comp Med. 54 (3), 309-317 (2004).</li><li>Fremont-Rahl, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mycobacterium+liflandii+outbreak+in+a+research+colony+of+Xenopus+(Silurana)+tropicalis+frogs.">Mycobacterium liflandii outbreak in a research colony of Xenopus (Silurana) tropicalis frogs.</a> Vet Pathol. 48 (4), 856-867 (2011).</li><li>Green, S. L., Parker, J., Davis, C., Bouley, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ovarian+hyperstimulation+syndrome+in+gonadotropin-treated+laboratory+South+African+clawed+frogs+(Xenopus+laevis).">Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome in gonadotropin-treated laboratory South African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis).</a> J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 46 (3), 64-67 (2007).</li><li>Vitt, L. J., Caldwell, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomy+of+amphibians+and+reptiles.+Herpetol.">Anatomy of amphibians and reptiles. Herpetol.</a> Herpetol. , 35-81 (2009).</li></ol>

The authors declare no competing interests.

As this protocol aims to maximize freshness, some samples may include undesired tissues. For example, the hepatopancreatic duct and some mesentery are sampled with the pancreas, and some peritoneal tissue, adrenal glands, and ureters will always be sampled with the paired kidneys.&#160; If freshness is not a concern, then more precise sampling can be achieved using modified techniques.
The appearance and location of organs are comparable between sexes and species of Xenopus. However, ...

Though the &#34;digital dissection&#34; of adult Xenopus&#8221; is available1, replicable organ and tissue sampling of adult Xenopus remains challenging without the detailed instruction available for other adult models (e.g. mice2,3,4). This article aims to provide clear guidance for accurate and replicable organ sampling of adult Xenopus similar to what is currently available for their larvae5. An emphasis is placed on ease of completion to maintain maximum freshness and make the protocol accessible to all users.
Though there is a thorough dissection guide for Rana sp.6, as well as numerous classroom dissection guides for other anurans7, no Xenopus dissection and sampling guide is currently available. For those not familiar with sampling practices or amphibian anatomy, the small differences between Xenopus and other anurans render these resources suboptimal for replicable tissue sampling.
Many valuable tissues are not included and are even discarded in the present guide; this is to ensure tissue freshness. Six samples are limited enough to ensure that these tissues can be collected in under an hour after the heart starts beating, regardless of the experience or skill level of the user. More advanced and detailed guides for collecting many other tissues are under preparation as separate companion papers.
For less experienced users, it is always recommended that this protocol be first attempted on animals being euthanized for reasons other than experimentation before sampling any animals that are challenging to replace (i.e., transgenics, animals of advanced age, etc). Ideally, all animals sampled will be healthy and, if female, will not have been ovulated in the past two weeks.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>5x Magnifying Glass with LED Light and Stand</td>
			<td>amazon.com</td>
			<td>B08QJ6J8P1</td>
			<td>light must not produce heat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable Transfer Pipets</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>414004-036</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting Fine-Pointed Forceps</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>08-875</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting scissors sharp piont, straight 6.5&#34;</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>76457-374</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection Tray</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>14-370-284</td>
			<td>styrofoam sheets are an acceptable alternative</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Euthanasia container</td>
			<td>US Plastic&#160;</td>
			<td>Item&#160;2860</td>
			<td>alternative opaque containers acceptable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Euthanasia container lid</td>
			<td>US Plastic&#160;</td>
			<td>Item&#160;3047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iridectomy Scissors 6&#34;</td>
			<td>vwr</td>
			<td>470018-938</td>
			<td>iris scissors are an acceptable alternative</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MS-222: Syncaine (formerly tricaine)</td>
			<td>Pentair AES</td>
			<td>TRS1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS 1x</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-040-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate, Powder, USP</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18-606-333</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Specimen Forceps, Serrated</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>82027-442</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T-Pins for Dissecting</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>S99385</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

techniques for rapidly sampling six crucial organs in adult xenopus

Xenopus has been a powerful model organism for understanding vertebrate development and disease for over a hundred years. While experimental analysis and dissection techniques of the embryo have been well documented, descriptions of adult Xenopus structures and organs, together with techniques for working with adults, have not been updated to take into consideration the requirements of such modern approaches as quantitative proteomics and single-cell transcriptomics. The cell-type and gene-centric perspectives require contrasting observations in embryonic stages to those in adult tissues. The organs of the larva undergo significant changes in their overall structure, morphology, and anatomical location all along the larval to adult transition, most notably during massive metamorphosis remodeling. Establishing robust standards for organ identification and dissection is crucial to ensure datasets resulting from studies performed at different laboratories can be consistent. The present protocol identifies six of the organs in the adult Xenopus, demonstrating methods for dissection and sampling of the heart ventricle, liver, fat body, pancreas, paired kidney, and skin of the adult Xenopus. Depending on the preservation methods, the dissected organs can be used for quantitative proteomics, single cell/nuclei transcriptomics, in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, histology, etc. This protocol aims to standardize tissue sampling and facilitate multi-lab investigations of the adult organ systems.

By utilizing Figure 1 to Figure 20 and following all steps of this protocol, the heart ventricle, the left lobe of the liver, the pancreas, the left fat bodies, paired kidneys, and a flap of skin were cleanly excised within an hour of euthanasia. Within this time, the samples are rinsed and trimmed so that they will appear, as shown in Figure 21.
<img alt="Figur...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Standardizing Tissue Sampling in Proteomics and Immunochemistry Research at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Standardizing Tissue Sampling in Proteomics and Immunochemistry Research

This article presents a guide for sampling six significant and diverse organs in adult Xenopus that can be rapidly and easily accessed: the heart ventricle, liver lobe, pancreas, fat bodies, paired kidneys, and skin.

Techniques for Rapidly Sampling Six Crucial Organs in Adult Xenopus

Xenopus has been a powerful model organism for understanding vertebrate development and disease for over a hundred years. While experimental analysis and ...

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812 Views.  Harvard Medical School. This article presents a guide for sampling six significant and diverse organs in adult Xenopus that can be rapidly and easily accessed: the heart ventricle, liver lobe, pancreas, fat bodies, paired kidneys, and skin.

Video: Author Spotlight: Standardizing Tissue Sampling in Proteomics and Immunochemistry Research

Visualizing RNA Localization in Xenopus Oocytes

RNA localization is a conserved mechanism of establishing cell polarity. Vg1 mRNA localizes to the vegetal pole of Xenopus laevis oocytes and acts to spatially restrict gene expression of Vg1 protein. Tight control of Vg1 distribution in this manner is required for proper germ layer specification in the developing embryo. RNA sequence elements in the 3' UTR of the mRNA, the Vg1 localization element (VLE) are required and sufficient to direct transport. To study the recognition and transport of Vg1 mRNA in vivo, we have developed an imaging technique that allows extensive analysis of trans-factor directed transport mechanisms via a simple visual readout. 
To visualize RNA localization, we synthesize fluorescently labeled VLE RNA and microinject this transcript into individual oocytes. After oocyte culture to allow transport of the injected RNA, oocytes are fixed and dehydrated prior to imaging by confocal microscopy. Visualization of mRNA localization patterns provides a readout for monitoring the complete pathway of RNA transport and for identifying roles in directing RNA transport for cis-acting elements within the transcript and trans-acting factors that bind to the VLE (Lewis et al., 2008, Messitt et al., 2008). We have extended this technique through co-localization with additional RNAs and proteins (Gagnon and Mowry, 2009, Messitt et al., 2008), and in combination with disruption of motor proteins and the cytoskeleton (Messitt et al., 2008) to probe mechanisms underlying mRNA localization.

Visualizing RNA Localization in Xenopus Oocytes

Visualization of in vivo RNA transport is accomplished by microinjection of fluorescently labeled RNA transcripts into Xenopus oocytes, followed by confocal microscopy.

RNA localization is a conserved mechanism of establishing cell polarity.  Vg1 mRNA localizes to the vegetal pole of Xenopus laevis oocytes and acts to ...

Dissection of Organs from the Adult Zebrafish

Over the last 20 years, the zebrafish has become a powerful model organism for understanding vertebrate development and disease.  Although experimental analysis of the embryo and larva is extensive and the morphology has been well documented, descriptions of adult zebrafish anatomy and studies of development of the adult structures and organs, together with techniques for working with adults are lacking. The organs of the larva undergo significant changes in their overall structure, morphology, and anatomical location during the larval to adult transition.  Externally, the transparent larva develops its characteristic adult striped pigment pattern and paired pelvic fins, while internally, the organs undergo massive growth and remodeling.  In addition, the bipotential gonad primordium develops into either testis or ovary.  This protocol identifies many of the organs of the adult and demonstrates methods for dissection of the brain, gonads, gastrointestinal system, heart, and kidney of the adult zebrafish. The dissected organs can be used for in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, histology, RNA extraction, protein analysis, and other molecular techniques.  This protocol will assist in the broadening of studies in the zebrafish to include the remodeling of larval organs, the morphogenesis of organs specific to the adult and other investigations of the adult organ systems.

This protocol describes a procedure for identifying and dissecting organs from the adult zebrafish.

Over the last 20 years, the zebrafish has become a powerful model organism for understanding vertebrate development and disease.  Although experimental ...

Techniques for Imaging Ca2+ Signaling in Human Sperm

Fluorescence microscopy of cells loaded with fluorescent, Ca2+-sensitive dyes is used for measurement of spatial and temporal aspects of Ca2+ signaling in live cells. Here we describe the method used in our laboratories for loading suspensions of human sperm with Ca2+-reporting dyes and measuring the fluorescence signal during physiological stimulation. Motile cells are isolated by direct swim-up and incubated under capacitating conditions for 0-24 h, depending upon the experiment. The cell-permeant AM (acetoxy methyl ester) ester form of the Ca2+-reporting dye is then added to a cell aliquot and a period of 1 h is allowed for loading of the dye into the cytoplasm. We use visible wavelength dyes to minimize photo-damage to the cells, but this means that ratiometric recording is not possible. Advantages and disadvantages of this approach are discussed. During the loading period cells are introduced into an imaging chamber and allowed to adhere to a poly-D-lysine coated coverslip. At the end of the loading period excess dye and loose cells are removed by connection of the chamber to the perfusion apparatus. The chamber is perfused continuously, stimuli and modified salines are then added to the perfusion header. Experiments are recorded by time-lapse acquisition of fluorescence images and analyzed in detail offline, by manually drawing regions of interest. Data are normalized to pre-stimulus levels such that, for each cell (or part of a cell), a graph showing the Ca2+ response as % change in fluorescence is obtained.

Techniques for Imaging Ca2+ Signaling in Human Sperm

Stimulus-evoked [Ca2+]i signals of individual human sperm are assessed. Motile cells are loaded with Ca2+-sensitive fluorescent dye (AM-ester method) and immobilised in a perfusable chamber. Cells are imaged by time-lapse fluorescence microscopy and stimulated via the perfusing medium. Responses of single cells (or regions) are analysed offline using Excel.

Fluorescence microscopy of cells loaded with fluorescent, Ca2+-sensitive dyes is used for measurement of spatial and temporal aspects of Ca2+ signaling in ...

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may also be used to study the structure-function relationship for other ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors1. BK channels are widely expressed in different tissues and have been implicated in many physiological functions, including regulation of smooth muscle contraction, frequency tuning of inner hair cells and regulation of neurotransmitter release2-6. BK channels are activated by membrane depolarization and by intracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ 6-9. Therefore, the protocol is designed to control both the membrane voltage and the intracellular solution. In this protocol, messenger RNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes (stage V-VI) followed by 2-5 days of incubation at 18&deg;C10-13. Membrane patches that contain single or multiple BK channels are excised with the inside-out configuration using patch clamp techniques10-13. The intracellular side of the patch is perfused with desired solutions during recording so that the channel activation under different conditions can be examined. To summarize, the mRNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes to express channel proteins on the oocyte membrane; patch clamp techniques are used to record currents flowing through the channels under controlled voltage and intracellular solutions.

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

Ionic current of BK channels is recorded using patch clamp techniques. BK channels are expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injecting messenger RNA. The intracellular solution during patch clamp recordings is controlled by a perfusion system.

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may ...

Gavaging Adult Zebrafish

The zebrafish has become an important in vivo model in biomedical research. Effective methods must be developed and utilized to deliver compounds or agents in solutions for scientific research. Current methods for administering compounds orally to adult zebrafish are inaccurate due to variability in voluntary consumption by the fish. A gavage procedure was developed to deliver precise quantities of infectious agents to zebrafish for study in biomedical research. Adult zebrafish over 6 months of age were anesthetized with 150 mg/L of buffered MS-222 and gavaged with 5 &mu;l of solution using flexible catheter implantation tubing attached to a cut 22-G needle tip. The flexible tubing was lowered into the oral cavity of the zebrafish until the tip of the tubing extended past the gills (approximately 1 cm). The solution was then injected slowly into the intestinal tract. This method was effective 88% of the time, with fish recovering uneventfully. This procedure is also efficient as one person can gavage 20-30 fish in one hour. This method can be used to precisely administer agents for infectious diseases studies, or studies of other compounds in adult zebrafish.

The increasing use of zebrafish as an animal model requires the development of effective methods for the delivery of known quantities of compounds and solutions. The gavage procedure described below allows for the oral delivery of precise volumes of solution reliably, safely and efficiently to adult zebrafish.

The zebrafish has become an important in vivo model in biomedical research. Effective methods must be developed and utilized to deliver compounds or ...

Facial Transplants in Xenopus laevis Embryos

Craniofacial birth defects occur in 1 out of every 700 live births, but etiology is rarely known due to limited understanding of craniofacial development. To identify where signaling pathways and tissues act during patterning of the developing face, a 'face transplant' technique has been developed in embryos of the frog Xenopus laevis. A region of presumptive facial tissue (the "Extreme Anterior Domain" (EAD)) is removed from a donor embryo at tailbud stage, and transplanted to a host embryo of the same stage, from which the equivalent region has been removed. This can be used to generate a chimeric face where the host or donor tissue has a loss or gain of function in a gene, and/or includes a lineage label. After healing, the outcome of development is monitored, and indicates roles of the signaling pathway within the donor or surrounding host tissues. Xenopus is a valuable model for face development, as the facial region is large and readily accessible for micromanipulation. Many embryos can be assayed, over a short time period since development occurs rapidly. Findings in the frog are relevant to human development, since craniofacial processes appear conserved between Xenopus and mammals.

Facial Transplants in Xenopus laevis Embryos

A technique for transplanting "Extreme Anterior Domain" facial tissue between Xenopus laevis embryos has been developed. Tissue can be moved from one gene expression background into another, allowing the study of local requirements for craniofacial development and for signaling interactions between facial regions.

Craniofacial birth defects occur in 1 out of every 700 live births, but etiology is rarely known due to limited understanding of craniofacial development. ...

The Xenopus Oocyte Cut-open Vaseline Gap Voltage-clamp Technique With Fluorometry

The cut-open oocyte Vaseline gap (COVG) voltage clamp technique allows for analysis of electrophysiological and kinetic properties of heterologous ion channels in oocytes. Recordings from the cut-open setup are particularly useful for resolving low magnitude gating currents, rapid ionic current activation, and deactivation. The main benefits over the two-electrode voltage clamp (TEVC) technique include increased clamp speed, improved signal-to-noise ratio, and the ability to modulate the intracellular and extracellular milieu.
Here, we employ the human cardiac sodium channel (hNaV1.5), expressed in Xenopus oocytes, to demonstrate the cut-open setup and protocol as well as modifications that are required to add voltage clamp fluorometry capability.
The properties of fast activating ion channels, such as hNaV1.5, cannot be fully resolved near room temperature using TEVC, in which the entirety of the oocyte membrane is clamped, making voltage control difficult. However, in the cut-open technique, isolation of only a small portion of the cell membrane allows for the rapid clamping required to accurately record fast kinetics while preventing channel run-down associated with patch clamp techniques.
In conjunction with the COVG technique, ion channel kinetics and electrophysiological properties can be further assayed by using voltage clamp fluorometry, where protein motion is tracked via cysteine conjugation of extracellularly applied fluorophores, insertion of genetically encoded fluorescent proteins, or the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into the region of interest1. This additional data yields kinetic information about voltage-dependent conformational rearrangements of the protein via changes in the microenvironment surrounding the fluorescent molecule.

The Xenopus Oocyte Cut-open Vaseline Gap Voltage-clamp Technique With Fluorometry

The cut-open Vaseline gap approach is used to obtain low noise recordings of ionic and gating currents from voltage-dependent ion channels expressed in Xenopus oocytes with high resolution of fast channel kinetics. With minor modification, voltage clamp fluorometry can be coupled to the cut-open oocyte protocol.

The cut-open oocyte Vaseline gap (COVG) voltage clamp technique allows for analysis of electrophysiological and kinetic properties of heterologous ion ...

Reconstitution Of &#946;-catenin Degradation In Xenopus Egg Extract

Xenopus laevis egg extract is a well-characterized, robust system for studying the biochemistry of diverse cellular processes. Xenopus egg extract has been used to study protein turnover in many cellular contexts, including the cell cycle and signal transduction pathways1-3. Herein, a method is described for isolating Xenopus egg extract that has been optimized to promote the degradation of the critical Wnt pathway component, &beta;-catenin. Two different methods are described to assess &beta;-catenin protein degradation in Xenopus egg extract. One method is visually informative ([35S]-radiolabeled proteins), while the other is more readily scaled for high-throughput assays (firefly luciferase-tagged fusion proteins). The techniques described can be used to, but are not limited to, assess &beta;-catenin protein turnover and identify molecular components contributing to its turnover. Additionally, the ability to purify large volumes of homogenous Xenopus egg extract combined with the quantitative and facile readout of luciferase-tagged proteins allows this system to be easily adapted for high-throughput screening for modulators of &beta;-catenin degradation.

Reconstitution Of &#946;-catenin Degradation In Xenopus Egg Extract

A method is described for analyzing protein degradation using radiolabeled and luciferase-fusion proteins in Xenopus egg extract and its adaptation for high-throughput screening for small molecule modulators of protein degradation.

Xenopus laevis egg extract is a well-characterized, robust system for studying the biochemistry of diverse cellular processes. Xenopus egg extract has ...

Non-Terminal Blood Sampling Techniques in Guinea Pigs

Guinea pigs possess several biological similarities to humans and are validated experimental animal models1-3. However, the use of guinea pigs currently represents a relatively narrow area of research and descriptive data on specific methodology is correspondingly scarce. The anatomical features of guinea pigs are slightly different from other rodent models, hence modulation of sampling techniques to accommodate for species-specific differences, e.g., compared to mice and rats, are necessary to obtain sufficient and high quality samples. As both long and short term in vivo studies often require repeated blood sampling the choice of technique should be well considered in order to reduce stress and discomfort in the animals but also to ensure survival as well as compliance with requirements of sample size and accessibility. Venous blood samples can be obtained at a number of sites in guinea pigs e.g., the saphenous and jugular veins, each technique containing both advantages and disadvantages4,5. Here, we present four different blood sampling techniques for either conscious or anaesthetized guinea pigs. The procedures are all non-terminal procedures provided that sample volumes and number of samples do not exceed guidelines for blood collection in laboratory animals6. All the described methods have been thoroughly tested and applied for repeated in vivo blood sampling in studies within our research facility.

Though a known model, the guinea pig currently represents a niche in experimental animal sciences and limited data is available on the execution of most procedures. Here we present four different approaches to non-terminal in vivo blood sampling techniques in either conscious or anaesthetized guinea pigs.

Guinea pigs possess several biological similarities to humans and are validated experimental animal models1-3. However, the use of guinea pigs currently ...

Quantification of Orofacial Phenotypes in Xenopus

Xenopus has become an important tool for dissecting the mechanisms governing craniofacial development and defects. A method to quantify orofacial development will allow for more rigorous analysis of orofacial phenotypes upon abrogation with substances that can genetically or molecularly manipulate gene expression or protein function. Using two dimensional images of the embryonic heads, traditional size dimensions-such as orofacial width, height and area- are measured. In addition, a roundness measure of the embryonic mouth opening is used to describe the shape of the mouth. Geometric morphometrics of these two dimensional images is also performed to provide a more sophisticated view of changes in the shape of the orofacial region. Landmarks are assigned to specific points in the orofacial region and coordinates are created. A principle component analysis is used to reduce landmark coordinates to principle components that then discriminate the treatment groups. These results are displayed as a scatter plot in which individuals with similar orofacial shapes cluster together. It is also useful to perform a discriminant function analysis, which statistically compares the positions of the landmarks between two treatment groups. This analysis is displayed on a transformation grid where changes in landmark position are viewed as vectors. A grid is superimposed on these vectors so that a warping pattern is displayed to show where significant landmark positions have changed. Shape changes in the discriminant function analysis are based on a statistical measure, and therefore can be evaluated by a p-value. This analysis is simple and accessible, requiring only a stereoscope and freeware software, and thus will be a valuable research and teaching resource.

Quantification of Orofacial Phenotypes in Xenopus

A method to quantify the orofacial size and shape of Xenopus laevis embryos has been developed. In this protocol, traditional size measurements are combined with geometric morphometrics to allow for more sophisticated analyses of orofacial development and defects.