The authors want to thank Dr. Tadmiri Venkatesh for his encouragement to prepare this manuscript, Dova Brenman and Selwyn Chui for their constructive comments, Elyssa Burg and Wayne Rasband for designing the macro in ImageJ for all interfly distances and for nearest neighbor distances. The authors also want to thank the reviewers for their constructive comments.
A.A.A, M.C.C. and A.F.S were responsible for research design; S.N.J., A.A.A, M.N., Z.R., and A.J.M. performed the experiments. A.A.A, M.N., A.J.M. and M.C.C and A.F.S. analyzed the data; A.R.M. and A.F.S. wrote the manuscript.
This work was supported by PSC-CUNY research awards, jointly funded by The Professional Staff Congress and The City University of New York to A.F.S.; by internal funding from Western University to A.F.S.; by a Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, and Geology majors scholarship for teachers-in-training and by a Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation scholarship to A.A.A.

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

<html> في هذا البروتوكول، وقد وصفت إجراءات تفصيلية لتقدير حجم الفضاء الاجتماعي. بعض الخطوات الحاسمة لضمان تجربة ناجحة هي: 1) دائما استخدام قفازات عند تنظيف وإعداد الجهاز، للحفاظ على الزيوت الخاصة بك والروائح خارج الغرفة الداخلية للجهاز، 2) ضمان جمع الذباب قبل يوم واحد عل...

<html> التفاعلات الاجتماعية ضرورية لتنمية سليمة وصحة الأفراد داخل المجموعة ككل، ويمكن ملاحظة عبر أنواع عديدة من البشر (الإنسان العاقل) للكائنات أبسط مثل ذبابة الفاكهة (ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن) 5،6. ذبابة الفاكهة الفردي أو الوسائل الشائعة سهم الإنسان لمعالجة المعلومات الحسية خلال هذه التفاعلات، سواء كان ذلك: السمعية والبصرية، وحاسة الشم، واللمس، أو ذوق حاسة. نحن وغيرنا نفترض أن هناك العصبية عن يحتمل المشتركة الكامنة وراء الاستجابات السلوكية للتفاعلات الاجتماعية وأن الخلايا العصبية والجينات المسؤولة قد تكون تطورية الحفظ 7. وبمجرد حدوث التفاعل الأولي، الفضاء الاجتماعي بين الأفراد والتفاعل إما أن الزيادة (تجنب الاجتماعي 8) أو نقصان (تشكيل مجموعة / التجميع 5). تفاعلات أكثر تعقيدا، مثل العدوان أو الخطوبة، ويمكن بعد ذلك أن يحدث. معشوقة = &quot;jove_content&quot;&gt; لا أدوات وأساليب متطورة، ولا استثمارات كبيرة في الوقت والتدريب اللازم لتحديد هذا نموذج بسيط من السلوك الاجتماعي، مما يجعله أداة تحليلية قوية. هنا، نحن شرح بروتوكول بسيط يحدد مقدار المسافة بين ذبابة، أو الفضاء الاجتماعي، لتقييم التفاعل الاجتماعي في مجموعات مستقرة من ذبابة الفاكهة، كما تستخدم في الدراسات التالية 1-4،9. يشير الفضاء الاجتماعي لقياس المسافة بين ذبابة وأقرب جارتها 10. الفضاء الاجتماعي هو ثابت لعدد معين من السكان من D. البطن عندما يتم الاحتفاظ ظروف تجريبية (في المتوسط ​​حوالي غضون 1-2 الجسم أطوال)، ويختلف فيما يتعلق التجربة الاجتماعية للذباب، وزيادة إذا ظلت الفرد في عزلة 1. الرؤية المناسبة أمر ضروري للحفاظ على المسافة الاجتماعية العادية، ولكن لا عطر الكلاسيكية أو الأنغولي التصور 1. وبالتالي يمكن قياس الفضاء الاجتماعي أن يكونتستخدم كأداة تشخيصية لتحليل التفاعلات الاجتماعية وتحديد السلوك الاجتماعي في D. البطن 1. وصفنا هنا في تفاصيل كيفية تنفيذ هذه الكمي، وإلى أي مدى تؤثر المتغيرات التجريبية المشتركة هذا السلوك. وتبين لنا أن التوجه للغرفة التي يتم تنفيذ الفحص، فضلا عن عدد من الذباب - إلى حد ما - هل يؤثر الفضاء الاجتماعي. وقد تبين في وقت سابق أن الهندسة غرفة تؤثر حركة استكشافية عفوية من الذباب 11،12، وهذه الظاهرة قد تؤثر في نهاية المطاف حيث قرروا تسوية. ومع ذلك، طالما أن كثافة الطيران (الطيران / سم 2) والتوجه غرفة تحفظ نفسها، والفضاء الاجتماعي من الذباب لا يزال أيضا مستمر. ويتضح مدى متانة هذا الاختبار من خلال حقيقة أن مختبرات مستقلة باستخدام أحجام غرفة مختلفة، والشكل، والتوجه يمكن تكرار النتائج المعروضة من قبل المسوخ من ذوي الخوذات البيضاءالجينات الفنار (التي تؤثر على تصبغ العين)، وهو الفضاء الاجتماعي الزيادة (مثلث الرأسي أو الأفقي في دائرة 1، مربع الأفقي مع تدفق الهواء في 3). تشير نتائجنا أيضا أن الحفاظ على الوقت الذي يتم تنفيذ التجربة الفضاء الاجتماعي أمر حاسم لاتساق النتائج، كما وتبين لنا أن الذكور، ولكن ليس الإناث، وبصرف النظر كذلك في المساء. ومع ذلك، فإن الاختلافات ينظر بين النهار والمساء ساعات ليست بسبب الخلافات النشاط من الذباب، ونحن نناقش الحجج تشير إلى أن مستويات النشاط لا ترتبط مع الفضاء الاجتماعي. وأخيرا، هناك الأسس الجينية لتحديد الفضاء الاجتماعي، كما يدل على ذلك المسخ الأبيض التي سبق وصفها 1،3، والخلافات بين مختلف السلالات الفطرية والبرية وصيدها من الذباب التي نقدمها هنا. لذلك، هذا الاختبار يجعل أداة ممتازة وأو دراسة آثار الوراثية وكذلك العوامل البيئية.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereo Zoom Microscope&#160;</td>
			<td>Nikon&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>SMZ-645</td>
			<td>Any other standard scope for fly handling would work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small paint brushes&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for pushing flies</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jazz-mix</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>33545</td>
			<td>any other standard drosophila food would work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-Alarm Timer/Stopwatch</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Sharpie pens</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive Tape</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Medium size binder clips</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>to hold the chambers together: 1-1/4&#34; (32mm) medium clips with 5/8&#34; capacity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>small SupportStands</td>
			<td>Carolina&#160;</td>
			<td>707161</td>
			<td rowspan="2">to hold the chambers in a vertical orientation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buret clamps</td>
			<td>Carolina</td>
			<td>707362</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Camera</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>&#160;Coolpix S8000&#160;</td>
			<td>to take the still pictures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>small ruler</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>to be able to scale the picture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>trifold board and white bench cover</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>to provide a white background, and a homogeneous light.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pounding pad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>any mouse pad works.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism 6</td>
			<td>GraphPad Software Inc.</td>
			<td>Prism 6 for Mac OS X</td>
			<td>Any statistical analysis software with t-test, one-way and two ANOVA would work</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

conditions affecting social space in drosophila melanogaster

مقايسة الفضاء الاجتماعي وصفها هنا يمكن أن تستخدم لقياس التفاعلات الاجتماعية من ذبابة الفاكهة melanogaste ص - أو الحشرات الصغيرة الأخرى - بطريقة مباشرة. كما سبق أثبتنا 1، في غرفة ثنائية الأبعاد، ونحن أول قوة الذباب لتشكيل مجموعة ضيقة، مما يسمح لهم بعد ذلك أن تأخذ مسافة المفضل لديهم عن بعضها البعض. بعد أن استقر الذباب، نقيس المسافة إلى أقرب جار (أو الفضاء الاجتماعي)، وتجهيز صورة ثابتة مع البرمجيات عبر الإنترنت مجانا (يماغيج). تحليل المسافة إلى أقرب جار يسمح للباحثين لتحديد تأثير العوامل الوراثية والبيئية على التفاعل الاجتماعي، في حين السيطرة على عوامل خارجية محتملة. ويمكن لعوامل مختلفة مثل قدرة التسلق، والوقت من اليوم، والجنس، وعدد من الذباب، تعديل التباعد الاجتماعي من الذباب. ومن ثم نقترح سلسلة من الضوابط التجريبية للتخفيف من هذه الآثار المربكة. هذا الاختبار يمكنأن تستخدم لغرضين على الأقل. أولا، يمكن للباحثين تحديد كيفية التحول البيئي المفضلة لديهم (مثل العزلة، ودرجة الحرارة، والإجهاد أو السموم) سوف يؤثر التباعد الاجتماعي 1،2. ثانيا، يمكن للباحثين تشريح الأسس الجينية والعصبية من هذا الشكل الأساسي للسلوك الاجتماعي 1،3. على وجه التحديد، ونحن استخدامه كأداة تشخيصية لدراسة دور orthologous الجينات يعتقد أن تشارك في السلوك الاجتماعي في الكائنات الحية الأخرى، مثل الجينات المرشحة لمرض التوحد لدى البشر (4).

غرفة الفضاء الاجتماعية يمكن أن تستخدم كأداة لتحديد السلوك الاجتماعي للذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن. يتم قص الفواصل الاكريليك والألواح الزجاجية معا لتشكيل الساحة الثلاثي الداخلية التي توفر مساحة ثنائية الأبعاد التي الذباب يمكن أن تشكل جماعات مستقرة دون وجود ال...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Conditions Affecting Social Space in Drosophila melanogaster at JoVE.com

Conditions Affecting Social Space in Drosophila melanogaster

The effect of genes and environment on social space of Drosophila melanogaster can be quantified through a powerful but straightforward analytical paradigm. We show here different factors that can affect this social space, and thus need to be taken into consideration when designing experiments in this paradigm.

الظروف التي تؤثر في الفضاء الاجتماعي<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن</em

The social space assay described here can be used to quantify social interactions of Drosophila melanogaster &#8212; or other small insects &#8212; in a ...

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Neuroscience

Conditions Affecting Social Space in Drosophila melanogaster

12.0K Views.  University of Western Ontario. The effect of genes and environment on social space of Drosophila melanogaster can be quantified through a powerful but straightforward analytical paradigm. We show here different factors that can affect this social space, and thus need to be taken into consideration when designing experiments in this paradigm.

Video: Conditions Affecting Social Space in Drosophila melanogaster

Single Sensillum Recordings in the Insects Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae

The sense of smell is essential for insects to find foods, mates, predators, and oviposition sites3. Insect olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are enclosed in sensory hairs called sensilla, which cover the surface of olfactory organs. The surface of each sensillum is covered with tiny pores, through which odorants pass and dissolve in a fluid called sensillum lymph, which bathes the sensory dendrites of the OSNs housed in a given sensillum. The OSN dendrites express odorant receptor (OR) proteins, which in insects function as odor-gated ion channels4, 5. The interaction of odorants with ORs either increases or decreases the basal firing rate of the OSN. This neuronal activity in the form of action potentials embodies the first representation of the quality, intensity, and temporal characteristics of the odorant6, 7.
Given the easy access to these sensory hairs, it is possible to perform extracellular recordings from single OSNs by introducing a recording electrode into the sensillum lymph, while the reference electrode is placed in the lymph of the eye or body of the insect. In Drosophila, sensilla house between one and four OSNs, but each OSN typically displays a characteristic spike amplitude. Spike sorting techniques make it possible to assign spiking responses to individual OSNs. This single sensillum recording (SSR) technique monitors the difference in potential between the sensillum lymph and the reference electrode as electrical spikes that are generated by the receptor activity on OSNs1, 2, 8. Changes in the number of spikes in response to the odorant represent the cellular basis of odor coding in insects. Here, we describe the preparation method currently used in our lab to perform SSR on Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae, and show representative traces induced by the odorants in a sensillum-specific manner.

Single Sensillum Recordings in the Insects Drosophila melanogaster and Anopheles gambiae

Electrophysiological responses of olfactory sensory neurons to odorants can be measured in insects using single sensillum recordings. In this video article we will demonstrate how to perform single sensillum recordings in the antennae of the vinegar fly (Drosophila melanogaster) and the maxillary palps of the malaria mosquito (Anopheles gambiae).

تسجيلات Sensillum واحدة في الحشرات ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن و الأنوفيلة الغامبية</em

The sense of smell is essential for insects to find foods, mates, predators, and oviposition sites3. Insect olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are enclosed ...

Optogenetic Stimulation of Escape Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

A growing number of genetically encoded tools are becoming available that allow non-invasive manipulation of the neural activity of specific neurons in Drosophila melanogaster1. Chief among these are optogenetic tools, which enable the activation or silencing of specific neurons in the intact and freely moving animal using bright light. Channelrhodopsin (ChR2) is a light-activated cation channel that, when activated by blue light, causes depolarization of neurons that express it. ChR2 has been effective for identifying neurons critical for specific behaviors, such as CO2 avoidance, proboscis extension and giant-fiber mediated startle response2-4. However, as the intense light sources used to stimulate ChR2 also stimulate photoreceptors, these optogenetic techniques have not previously been used in the visual system. Here, we combine an optogenetic approach with a mutation that impairs phototransduction to demonstrate that activation of a cluster of loom-sensitive neurons in the fly's optic lobe, Foma-1 neurons, can drive an escape behavior used to avoid collision. We used a null allele of a critical component of the phototransduction cascade, phospholipase C-&beta;, encoded by the norpA gene, to render the flies blind and also use the Gal4-UAS transcriptional activator system to drive expression of ChR2 in the Foma-1 neurons. Individual flies are placed on a small platform surrounded by blue LEDs. When the LEDs are illuminated, the flies quickly take-off into flight, in a manner similar to visually driven loom-escape behavior. We believe that this technique can be easily adapted to examine other behaviors in freely moving flies.

Optogenetic Stimulation of Escape Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

Genetically encoded optogenetic tools enable noninvasive manipulation of specific neurons in the Drosophila brain. Such tools can identify neurons whose activation is sufficient to elicit or suppress particular behaviors. Here we present a method for activating Channelrhodopsin2 that is expressed in targeted neurons in freely walking flies.

Optogenetic تحفيز السلوك في الهروب<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة الدروسوفيلا</em

A  growing number of genetically encoded tools are becoming available that allow non-invasive  manipulation of the neural activity of specific neurons in ...

Determination of the Spontaneous Locomotor Activity in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster has been used as an excellent model organism to study environmental and genetic manipulations that affect behavior. One such behavior is spontaneous locomotor activity. Here we describe our protocol that utilizes Drosophila population monitors and a tracking system that allows continuous monitoring of the spontaneous locomotor activity of flies for several days at a time. This method is simple, reliable, and objective and can be used to examine the effects of aging, sex, changes in caloric content of food, addition of drugs, or genetic manipulations that mimic human diseases.

Determination of the Spontaneous Locomotor Activity in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster are useful in studying genetic or environmental manipulations that affect behaviors such as spontaneous locomotor activity.&#160; Here we describe a protocol that utilizes monitors with infrared beams and data analysis software to quantify spontaneous locomotor activity.&#160;

تحديد العفوي الحركي آخر في<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن</em

Drosophila melanogaster has been used as an excellent model organism to study environmental and genetic manipulations that affect behavior. One such ...

Straightforward Assay for Quantification of Social Avoidance in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is an emerging model to study different aspects of social interactions. For example, flies avoid areas previously occupied by stressed conspecifics due to an odorant released during stress known as the Drosophila stress odorant (dSO). Through the use of the T-maze apparatus, one can quantify the avoidance of the dSO by responder flies in a very affordable and robust assay. Conditions necessary to obtain a strong performance are presented here. A stressful experience is necessary for the flies to emit dSO, as well as enough emitter flies to cause a robust avoidance response to the presence of dSO. Genetic background, but not their group size, strongly altered the avoidance of the dSO by the responder flies. Canton-S and Elwood display a higher performance in avoiding the dSO than Oregon and Samarkand strains. This behavioral assay will allow identification of mechanisms underlying this social behavior, and the assessment of the influence of genes and environmental conditions on both emission and avoidance of the dSO. Such an assay can be included in batteries of simple diagnostic tests used to identify social deficiencies of mutants or environmental conditions of interest.

Straightforward Assay for Quantification of Social Avoidance in Drosophila melanogaster

Here, we present a protocol to quantify the avoidance of stressed individuals. This paradigm is powerful yet user-friendly and can be used to assess the influence of genes and environment on one kind of social interaction in Drosophila melanogaster.

الفحص مباشرة للالكمي لتجنب الاجتماعي في<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء</em

Drosophila melanogaster is an emerging model to study different aspects of social interactions. For example, flies avoid areas previously occupied by ...

A Behavioral Assay for Mechanosensation of MARCM-based Clones in Drosophila melanogaster

Because of the structural and functional homology to the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear, the neurons that innervate the Drosophila external sense organs provide an excellent model system for the study of mechanosensation. This protocol describes a simple touch behavior in fruit flies which can be used to identify mutations that interfere with mechanosensation. The tactile stimulation of a macrochaete bristle on the thorax of flies elicits a grooming reflex from either the first or third leg. Mutations that interfere with mechanotransduction (such as NOMPC), or with other aspects of the reflex arc, can inhibit the grooming response. A traditional screen of adult behaviors would have missed mutants that have essential roles during development. Instead, this protocol combines the touch screen with mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) to allow for only limited regions of homozygous mutant cells to be generated and marked by the expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP). By testing MARCM clones for abnormal behavioral responses, it is possible to screen a collection of lethal p-element mutations to search for new genes involved in mechanosensation that would have been missed by more traditional methods.

A Behavioral Assay for Mechanosensation of MARCM-based Clones in Drosophila melanogaster

In order to identify novel mutations affecting mechanosensation, we designed an assay that measures the behavioral response to tactile stimulation of fly bristles in mutant clones generated by the MARCM method. The combination of techniques allows for the identification of mechanosensitive mutations that would otherwise be lethal.

النسخ في والسلوكية الفحص لMechanosensation من MARCM المستندة<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة السوداء البطن</em

Because of the structural and functional homology to the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear, the neurons that innervate the Drosophila external sense ...

Foraging Path-length Protocol for Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

The Drosophila melanogaster larval path-length phenotype is an established measure used to study the genetic and environmental contributions to behavioral variation. The larval path-length assay was developed to measure individual differences in foraging behavior that were later linked to the foraging gene. Larval path-length is an easily scored trait that facilitates the collection of large sample sizes, at minimal cost, for genetic screens. Here we provide a detailed description of the current protocol for the larval path-length assay first used by Sokolowski. The protocol details how to reproducibly handle test animals, perform the behavioral assay and analyze the data. An example of how the assay can be used to measure behavioral plasticity in response to environmental change, by manipulating feeding environment prior to performing the assay, is also provided. Finally, appropriate test design as well as environmental factors that can modify larval path-length such as food quality, developmental age and day effects are discussed.

Foraging Path-length Protocol for Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

We provide a detailed protocol for a Drosophila melanogaster foraging path-length assay. We discuss the preparation and handling of test animals, how to perform the assay and analyze the data.

تستخدم علفا بروتوكول مسار طول ل<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em&gt; يرقات

The Drosophila melanogaster larval path-length phenotype is an established measure used to study the genetic and environmental contributions to behavioral ...

The CApillary FEeder Assay Measures Food Intake in Drosophila melanogaster

For most animals, feeding is an essential behavior for securing survival, and it influences development, locomotion, health and reproduction. Ingestion of the right type and quantity of food therefore has a major influence on quality of life. Research on feeding behavior focuses on the underlying processes that ensure actual feeding and unravels the role of factors regulating internal energy homeostasis and the neuronal bases of decision-making. The model organism Drosophila melanogaster, with its great variety of genetically traceable tools for labeling and manipulating single neurons, allows mapping of neuronal networks and identification of molecular signaling cascades involved in the regulation of food intake. This report demonstrates the CApillary FEeder assay (CAFE) and shows how to measure food intake in a group of flies for time spans ranging from hours to days. This easy-to-use assay consists of glass capillaries filled with liquid food that flies can freely access and feed on. Food consumption in the assay is accurately determined using simple measurement tools. Herein we describe step-by-step the method from setup to successful execution of the CAFE assay, and provide practical examples to analyze the food intake of a group of flies under controlled conditions. The reader is guided through possible limitations of the assay, and advantages and disadvantages of the method compared to other feeding assays in D. melanogaster are evaluated.

The CApillary FEeder Assay Measures Food Intake in Drosophila melanogaster

The CApillary FEeder (CAFE) assay is a simple, budget-friendly, highly reliable method for investigating mechanisms underlying food intake. Used with the highly versatile genetic model organism Drosophila melanogaster, it provides a powerful means of gaining new insights into regulatory mechanisms of food intake.

الشعيرات الدموية المغذية الفحص يقيس كمية الطعام في<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em

For most animals, feeding is an essential behavior for securing survival, and it influences development, locomotion, health and reproduction. Ingestion of ...

Measuring and Altering Mating Drive in Male Drosophila melanogaster

Despite decades of investigation, the neuronal and molecular bases of motivational states remain mysterious. We have recently developed a novel, reductionist, and scalable system for in-depth investigation of motivation using the mating drive of male Drosophila&#160;melanogaster (Drosophila), the methods for which we detail here. The behavioral paradigm centers on the finding that male mating drive decreases alongside fertility over the course of repeated copulations and recovers over ~3 d. In this system, the powerful neurogenetic tools available in the fly converge with the genetic accessibility and putative wiring diagram available for sexual behavior. This convergence allows rapid isolation and interrogation of small neuronal populations with specific motivational functions. Here we detail the design and execution of the satiety assay that is used to measure and alter courtship motivation in the male fly. Using this assay, we also demonstrate that low male mating drive can be overcome by stimulating dopaminergic neurons. The satiety assay is simple, affordable, and robust to influences of genetic background. We expect the satiety assay to generate many new insights into the neurobiology of motivational states.

Measuring and Altering Mating Drive in Male Drosophila melanogaster

This article describes a behavioral assay that uses male mating drive in Drosophila melanogaster to study motivation. Using this method, researchers can utilize advanced fly neurogenetic techniques to uncover the genetic, molecular, and cellular mechanisms that underlie this motivation.

قياس وتغيير التزاوج محرك في ذكر<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em

Despite decades of investigation, the neuronal and molecular bases of motivational states remain mysterious. We have recently developed a novel, ...

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. Learning-induced changes in synaptic transmission are often distributed across many neurons and levels of processing in the brain. Therefore, methods to visualize learning-dependent synaptic plasticity across neurons are needed. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster represents a particularly favorable model organism to study neuronal circuits underlying learning. The protocol presented here demonstrates a way in which the processes underlying the formation of associative olfactory memories, i.e., synaptic activity and their changes, can be monitored in vivo. Using the broad array of genetic tools available in Drosophila, it is possible to specifically express genetically encoded calcium indicators in determined cell populations and even single cells. By fixing a fly in place, and opening the head capsule, it is possible to visualize calcium dynamics in these cells whilst delivering olfactory stimuli. Additionally, we demonstrate a set-up in which the fly can be subjected, simultaneously, to electric shocks to the body. This provides a system in which flies can undergo classical olfactory conditioning - whereby a previously na&#239;ve odor is learned to be associated with electric shock punishment - at the same time as the representation of this odor (and other untrained odors) is observed in the brain via two-photon microscopy. Our lab has previously reported the generation of synaptically localized calcium sensors, which enables one to confine the fluorescent calcium signals to pre- or postsynaptic compartments. Two-photon microscopy provides a way to spatially resolve fine structures. We exemplify this by focusing on neurons integrating information from the mushroom body, a higher-order center of the insect brain. Overall, this protocol provides a method to examine the synaptic connections between neurons whose activity is modulated as a result of olfactory learning.

In Vivo Optical Calcium Imaging of Learning-Induced Synaptic Plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

Here we present a protocol with which pre- and/or postsynaptic calcium can be visualized in the context of Drosophila learning and memory. In vivo calcium imaging using synaptically localized calcium sensors is combined with a classical olfactory conditioning paradigm such that the synaptic plasticity underlying this type of associative learning may be determined.

في فيفو البصرية الكالسيوم التصوير من اللدونة متشابك الناجمة عن التعلم في دروفوميلا ميلغاستر

Decades of research in many model organisms have led to the current concept of synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory formation. ...

تكييف قياس التنفس الدقيق لذبابة الفاكهة - رؤى حول التمثيل الغذائي الطافر CASK

Measuring O2 Consumption in Drosophila melanogaster Using Coulometric Microrespirometry

Coulometric microrespirometry is a straightforward, inexpensive method for measuring the O2 consumption of small organisms while maintaining a stable environment. A coulometric microrespirometer consists of an airtight chamber in which O2 is consumed and the CO2 produced by the organism is removed by an absorbent medium. The resulting pressure decrease triggers electrolytic O2 production, and the amount of O2 produced is measured by recording the amount of charge used to generate it. In the present study, the method has been adapted to Drosophila melanogaster tested in small groups, with the sensitivity of the apparatus and the environmental conditions optimized for high stability. The amount of O2 consumed by wildtype flies in this apparatus is consistent with that measured by previous studies. Mass-specific O2 consumption by CASK mutants, which are smaller and known to be less active, was not different from congenic controls. However, the small size of CASK mutants resulted in a significant reduction in O2 consumption on a per-fly basis. Therefore, the microrespirometer is capable of measuring O2 consumption in D. melanogaster, can distinguish modest differences between genotypes, and adds a versatile tool for measuring metabolic rates.

تسليط الضوء على المؤلف: تأثير درجة الحرارة على ذبابة الفاكهة والخنافس المتكيفة مع الصحراء 

Coulometric respirometry is ideal for measuring the metabolic rate of small organisms. When adapted for Drosophila melanogaster in the present study, measured O2 consumption was within the range reported for wildtype D. melanogaster by previous studies. Per-fly O2 consumption by CASK mutants, which are smaller and less active, was significantly lower than the wildtype.

قياس استهلاك O2 في ذبابة الفاكهة الميلانية باستخدام قياس التنفس المجهري بقياس الكولوم

Coulometric microrespirometry is a straightforward, inexpensive method for measuring the O2 consumption of small organisms while maintaining a stable ...