Name: a protocol for transcranial photobiomodulation therapy in mice
Uploaded: 2018-11-18T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Protocol for Transcranial Photobiomodulation Therapy in Mice at JoVE.com

This work was supported by a grant from the Tabriz University of Medical Sciences (grant no. 61019) to S.S.-E. and a publication grant from LiteCure LLC, Newark, DE, USA to L.D.T. The authors would like to thank the Immunology Department and Education Development Center (EDC) of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences for their kind assistance.

All of the procedures were carried out in conformity with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health (NIH; Publication No. 85-23, revised 1985) and approved by the regional ethics committee of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences.
CAUTION: This protocol includes the application of Class 3B laser instruments and will require proper training and adherence to safety guidelines. Class 3B lasers can seriously damage the eyes and can heat the skin. Cla...

<ol>
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We describe a protocol for conducting a transcranial PBMT procedure in mice. This protocol is specifically targeted to neuroscience laboratories that perform photobiomodulation research focused on rodents. However, this protocol can be adapted to other laboratory animals that are frequently used in the neuroscience field, such as rabbit, cat, dog, or monkey.
Currently, there is increased interest in investigating transcranial PBMT with red/NIR lasers and LEDs. In order to successfully carry ou...

PBMT, or low-level laser light therapy (LLLT), is a general term which refers to therapeutic methods based on the stimulation of biological tissues by light energy from lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Almost all PBMT treatments are applied with red to near-infrared (NIR) light at wavelengths from 600 to 1100 nm, an output power ranging from 1 to 500 mW, and a fluence ranging from &#60;1 to &#62;20 J/cm2 (see Chung et al.1).
Transcranial PBMT is a noninvasive light delivery method that is conducted by irradiation of the head using an external light source (laser or LEDs)2. For animal applications, this method includes contact or noncontact placement of the LED or laser probe on the animal&#39;s head. Depending on the therapeutic region of interest, a light probe can be placed either over the entire head (for covering all the brain areas) or over a specific portion of the head, such as the prefrontal, frontal, or parietal region. The partial transmission of red/NIR light through the scalp, skull, and dura mater can reach the cortical surface level and provide an amount of photon energy sufficient to produce therapeutic benefits. Subsequently, the delivered light fluence at the cortical level would be propagated into the gray and white brain matter until it reaches the deeper structures of the brain3.
Light in the spectral bands at the red to far-red region (600-680 nm) and early NIR region (800-870 nm) corresponds to the absorption spectrum of cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain4. It is hypothesized that PBMT in the red/NIR spectrum causes photodissociation of nitric oxide (NO) from cytochrome c oxidase, resulting in increases in mitochondrial electron transport and, ultimately, increased ATP generation5. With respect to neuronal applications, the potential neurostimulatory benefits of brain PBMT using transcranial irradiation methods have been reported in a variety of preclinical studies, including rodent models of traumatic brain injury (TBI)6, acute stroke7, Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD)8, Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD)9, depression10, and aging11.
Brain aging is considered a neuropsychological condition that negatively affects some cognitive functions, such as learning and memory12. Mitochondria are the primary organelles responsible for ATP production and neuronal bioenergetics. Mitochondrial dysfunction is known to be associated with age-related deficits in brain areas that are linked to spatial navigation memory, such as the hippocampus13. Because cranial treatment with red/NIR light primarily acts by modulation of mitochondrial bioenergetics, sufficient delivered light dosage to the hippocampus can result in the improvement of spatial memory outcomes14.
The aim of the current protocol is to demonstrate the transcranial PBMT procedure in mice, using low levels of red light. The required laser light transmission measurements through the head tissues of aged mice are described. Additionally, Barnes maze, as a hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory task, and hippocampal ATP levels, as a bioenergetics index, are used for an evaluation of the treatment impact in animals.

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			<td>Alfasan</td>
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			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Alfasan</td>
			<td>#1608238-01</td>
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			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>#A4679</td>
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			<td>Superglue</td>
			<td>Quickstar</td>
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			<td></td>
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			<td>Vibratome</td>
			<td>Campden Instruments</td>
			<td>#MA752-707</td>
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			<td>Optical glass</td>
			<td>Sail Brand</td>
			<td>#7102</td>
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			<td>Power meter</td>
			<td>Thor labs</td>
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			<td>Photodiode detector</td>
			<td>Thor labs</td>
			<td>#S121C</td>
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			<td>Caliper</td>
			<td>Pittsburgh</td>
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			<td>GaAlAs laser</td>
			<td>Thor Photomedicine</td>
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			<td>Etho Vision</td>
			<td>Noldus</td>
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			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Froilabo</td>
			<td>#SW14R</td>
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			<td>Earmuffs</td>
			<td>Blue Eagle</td>
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			<td>Digital camera</td>
			<td>Visionlite</td>
			<td>#VCS2-E742H</td>
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			<td>Sterio amplifier</td>
			<td>Sony</td>
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			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Hamonteb</td>
			<td>#665.128321</td>
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			<td>Barnes maze</td>
			<td>Costom-made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td>ATP assay kit</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>#MAK190</td>
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			<td>Elisa reader</td>
			<td>Awareness</td>
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</table>

a protocol for transcranial photobiomodulation therapy in mice

Transcranial photobiomodulation is a potential innovative noninvasive therapeutic approach for improving brain bioenergetics, brain function in a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders, and memory enhancement in age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases. We describe a laboratory protocol for transcranial photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) in mice. Aged BALB/c mice (18 months old) are treated with a 660 nm laser transcranially, once daily for 2 weeks. Laser transmittance data shows that approximately 1% of the incident red light on the scalp reaches a 1 mm depth from the cortical surface, penetrating the dorsal hippocampus. Treatment outcomes are assessed by two methods: a Barnes maze test, which is a hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory task evaluation, and measuring hippocampal ATP levels, which is used as a bioenergetics index. The results from the Barnes task show an enhancement of the spatial memory in laser-treated aged mice when compared with age-matched controls. Biochemical analysis after laser treatment indicates increased hippocampal ATP levels. We postulate that the enhancement of memory performance is potentially due to an improvement in hippocampal energy metabolism induced by the red laser treatment. The observations in mice could be extended to other animal models since this protocol could potentially be adapted to other species frequently used in translational neuroscience, such as rabbit, cat, dog, or monkey. Transcranial photobiomodulation is a safe and cost-effective modality which may be a promising therapeutic approach in age-related cognitive impairment.

Statistical analyses
The statistical analysis of data obtained from the Barnes training sessions was analyzed by two-way ANOVA; the other behavioral tests and analysis of hippocampal ATP levels among groups were carried out by one-way ANOVA, followed by Tukey&#39;s post hoc test. All data are expressed as means &#177; the standard error of the mean (SEM), except for the laser transmission data, which are shown a...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Protocol for Transcranial Photobiomodulation Therapy in Mice at JoVE.com

A Protocol for Transcranial Photobiomodulation Therapy in Mice

Photobiomodulation therapy is an innovative noninvasive modality for the treatment of a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders and can also improve healthy brain function. This protocol includes a step-by-step guide to performing brain photobiomodulation in mice by transcranial light delivery, which can be adapted for use in other laboratory rodents.

Transcranial photobiomodulation is a potential innovative noninvasive therapeutic approach for improving brain bioenergetics, brain function in a wide ...

The overall goal of the following experimental protocol, is to perform a transcranial photobiomodulation therapy using low levels of red laser in mice. This is accomplished by the direct contact of the laser probe on the mouse head. As a first step, in order to evaluation of the laser light transmission, carefully dissect the brain tissue out from the skull.And then measure the transmitted light power through the skull plus the scalp and one millimeter slice of the brain tissue. In the therapy section, contact the tip of the laser probe directly on the scalp at the bregma. This spatial learning and memory functions are evaluated by Barnes maze task.Subsequently, hippocampal ATP levels are determined by the spectrophotometric method. Laser transmission data show that approximately 1%of antecedent light on the scalp surface reached one millimeter depth from the cortical surface. The results from the Barnes maze task show an improvement of the spatial memory in the aged mice following two weeks of the transcranial red laser treatment.Also, the results suggest an increased hippocampal ATP levels in the laser-treated aged mice. Transcranial photobiomodulation is a non-invasive therapeutic approach for the treatment of a wide range of neurological and psychiatric disorders and for improving healthy brain function. Indeed, it's believed that photobiomodulation therapy causes photodissociation of the nitric oxide from the cytochrome c oxidase in the mitochondria.These in turn increasing mitrochondrial electron transport, which ultimately leads to an increase in ATP production. This method is a safe and cost-effective light-delivery approach that is performed by radiation of the head using external light sources including lasers and light-emitting diodes. Almost all transcranial photobiomodulation procedures are applied with red to near-infrared light at wavelength from 600 to 1100 nanometer, a power ranging from one to 500 milliwatt, and the fluence ranging from one to 20 joule per centimeter square.In a deeply anesthetized mouse, carefully dissect the brain tissue out from the skull. First, fix the intact brain tissue on an agarose gel and prepare all the required materials including sodium chloride and glue. Then, spread a thin layer of glue on the surface of the vibratome mounting block.Carefully attach the agarose block and adjust its position. Slightly match the vibratome blade to the upper surface of the block, and record the counter value. Fill the vibratome tank with ice-cold normal saline solution.Adjust the speed and vibration frequency of the vibratome, and change the counter to appropriate value for obtaining a slice thickness of one millimeter. Turn on the vibratome and the push the start button and cut the brain transversally into a slice with a thickness of one millimeter. First, add a drop of water on the optical glass surface.Then, put the brain slice on the glass. Add the drop of water on it, and carefully place the second optical glass. Note that a drop of water should be added to the sample and glass boundaries in order to prevent tissue drying and also light scattering from rough surfaces.Transfer samples to the optical laboratory. Set up the optical devices and turn on the power meter. Wear eye protection goggles before starting to operate with the laser device.Turn on the laser and have the beam focused on the mirror for guiding the beam to the photodiode's active area. First, place two blank optical glasses on the surface of the power meter, and read the transmitted light power from the display screen. Remove the blank glasses and gently place the brain sample on the surface of the power meter, and focus the beam on the tissue's respective area, and read the transmitted power.This time, place a blank optical glass on the surface of the power meter and read the transmitted light power. Then, remove the blank glass and slightly place an optical glass with fresh skull and scalped tissue on the surface of the power meter. Focus the beam on the bregma and read the transmitted power.Finally, turn off the laser device and the power meter. Therapy section of the current protocol includes the application of the Class 3B laser instruments and this requires proper training and safety guidelines. In order to adapt the animals to the new environment, bring mice from their home cages to the therapy room approximately 20 minutes prior to beginning the treatment.First, insert the laser device plug into an electric protector. Cover the tip of the laser probe with a transparent nylon film in order to prevent any scratching to the probe surface. Carefully connect the laser probe to the channel of the device.Wear eye protection goggles before starting to operate with the laser device. Turn on the laser device and wait for a few seconds for its warmup. After observing the Laser Ready sign on the device panel, adjust the treatment parameters including irradiation time and operation mode.Before starting the treatment, determine the laser average power by contacting the tip of the probe to the active area of the power meter on the device. In the current protocol, the laser probe is placed on the bregma zone, which is approximately three millimeter rostral to a line drawn between the anterior base of the ears. In order to avoid direct radiation to the animal's eyes, first, place the tip of the laser probe on the head, then, turn on the laser and stably hold the probe until the completion of irradiation.Then, turn off the laser device and disconnect the probe from the device. At the end of the procedure, clean the laser probe with an appropriate optical cleaner. The spatial learning and memory task is performed in a Barnes maze.First, place the do not enter sign on the outside of the task room door. Attach visual spatial cues to the perimeter walls. Position a video camera above the maze platform.Clean the surface of the maze platform with 70%ethanol in order to remove unwanted olfactory cues. Add a small amount of bedding from the animal's home cage in into the escape box to serve as an olfactory cue. Before starting the task, put each mouse in the new cage, and transfer the cage to the Barnes maze room.To habituate, allow the animal to remain in the room for 30 minutes prior to the task. Then, remove the mouse from its cage and gently place the animal in the escape box, and allow it remain there for one minute. After one minute, gently remove the mouse from the escape box, place the animal in the center of the arena, and put the start chamber on it.After a ten second period, lift the start chamber and allow the animal to explore the arena for three minutes. Quietly move to the computer area, wear earmuffs, and trigger a negative auditory stimulus consisting of a loud white noise. Then, begin videotaping and observe animal's behavior on the computer monitor.Note that a black maze should be used for testing white mice. Also, a black mat should be placed under the maze in the case tracking system software is to be used. Set up the video tracking software program and extract the parameters of interest from the recorded videos.For a biochemical assessment, dissect hippocampus tissues, homogenize them in a sample buffer, centrifuge it, and then assess its ATP levels using the spectrophotometric method. The 660 nanometer laser light transmission through the skull plus scalp of the aged mice was approximately 16%Also, the value of about 10%was measured as a laser transmittance through a one millimeter slice of aged brain tissue. There were no statistically significant differences in the log of motor activity in the open field test among all experimental groups.Data from Barnes maze task showed that the latency times of the aged control animals are obviously longer than those of the young control group on the third and fourth days of the training session. However, the red laser treatment significantly reduced the latency time on day four. In the prop trial session, aged control animals spend significantly shorter times in the target quadrant compared with the young control animals.However, the laser-treated aged mice spent significantly longer times in the target quadrants as compared to aged control mice. The hippocampal bioenergetics data reveals a decrease in ATP levels in the aged control animals. On the other hand, the red laser treatment significantly increases the mean ATP contents in the hippocampus of the aged mice.We described protocol for laboratory conducting a transcranial photobiomudulation therapy procedure in mice. Our protocol can be adapted to any other laboratory animals that are frequently used in the translational neuroscience field, such as rabbit, dog, monkey, et cetera. Based on our investigation, low levels of red light can recover hippocampal disfunction in the aged brain by boosting ATP production, which is reflected in an enhanced spatial memory function.In this method, based on which brain regions are effected by pathology, several physical and treatment parameters, including irradiation time, treatment interval, applied radiance, and fluence, are required to be optimally adjusted to achieve better results. Transcranial photobiomodulation therapy is proposed as a promising approach for improving brain metabolism and cognitive enhancement that could be a potential strategy for the age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases.

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Neuroscience

A Novel Approach for Documenting Phosphenes Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Stimulation of the human visual cortex produces a transient perception of light, known as a phosphene. Phosphenes are induced by invasive electrical stimulation of the occipital cortex, but also by non-invasive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)1 of the same cortical regions. The intensity at which a phosphene is induced (phosphene threshold) is a well established measure of visual cortical excitability and is used to study cortico-cortical interactions, functional organization 2, susceptibility to pathology 3,4 and visual processing 5-7. Phosphenes are typically defined by three characteristics: they are observed in the visual hemifield contralateral to stimulation; they are induced when the subject s eyes are open or closed, and their spatial location changes with the direction of gaze 2. Various methods have been used to document phosphenes, but a standardized methodology is lacking. We demonstrate a reliable procedure to obtain phosphene threshold values and introduce a novel system for the documentation and analysis of phosphenes. We developed the Laser Tracking and Painting system (LTaP), a low cost, easily built and operated system that records the location and size of perceived phosphenes in real-time. The LTaP system provides a stable and customizable environment for quantification and analysis of phosphenes.

Phosphenes are transient percepts of light that can be induced by applying Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to visually sensitive regions of cortex. We demonstrate a standard protocol for determining the phosphene threshold value and introduce a novel method for quantifying and analyzing perceived phosphenes.

Stimulation of the human visual cortex produces a transient perception of light, known as a phosphene. Phosphenes are induced by invasive electrical ...

Assessment of Cerebral Lateralization in Children using Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound (fTCD)

There are many unanswered questions about cerebral lateralization. In particular, it remains unclear which aspects of language and nonverbal ability are lateralized, whether there are any disadvantages associated with atypical patterns of cerebral lateralization, and whether cerebral lateralization develops with age. In the past, researchers interested in these questions tended to use handedness as a proxy measure for cerebral lateralization, but this is unsatisfactory because handedness is only a weak and indirect indicator of laterality of cognitive functions1. Other methods, such as fMRI, are expensive for large-scale studies, and not always feasible with children2.
Here we will describe the use of functional transcranial Doppler ultrasound (fTCD) as a cost-effective, non-invasive and reliable method for assessing cerebral lateralization. The procedure involves measuring blood flow in the middle cerebral artery via an ultrasound probe placed just in front of the ear. Our work builds on work by Rune Aaslid, who co-introduced TCD in 1982, and Stefan Knecht, Michael Deppe and their colleagues at the University of M&uuml;nster, who pioneered the use of simultaneous measurements of left- and right middle cerebral artery blood flow, and devised a method of correcting for heart beat activity. This made it possible to see a clear increase in left-sided blood flow during language generation, with lateralization agreeing well with that obtained using other methods3.
The middle cerebral artery has a very wide vascular territory (see Figure 1) and the method does not provide useful information about localization within a hemisphere. Our experience suggests it is particularly sensitive to tasks that involve explicit or implicit speech production. The 'gold standard' task is a word generation task (e.g. think of as many words as you can that begin with the letter 'B') 4, but this is not suitable for young children and others with limited literacy skills. Compared with other brain imaging methods, fTCD is relatively unaffected by movement artefacts from speaking, and so we are able to get a reliable result from tasks that involve describing pictures aloud5,6. Accordingly, we have developed a child-friendly task that involves looking at video-clips that tell a story, and then describing what was seen.

Assessment of Cerebral Lateralization in Children using Functional Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound fTCD

Functional transcranial Doppler sonography (fTCD) is a simple and non-invasive ultrasound technique which can be used to assess the lateralization of cognitive functions, especially language, and is suitable for use with children.

There are many unanswered questions about cerebral lateralization.  In particular, it remains unclear which aspects of language and nonverbal ability are ...

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and fMRI to Examine the Default Mode Network

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful rest."1,2,3 It is thought the default mode network corresponds to self-referential or "internal mentation".2,3
It has been hypothesized that, in humans, activity within the default mode network is correlated with certain pathologies (for instance, hyper-activation has been linked to schizophrenia 4,5,6 and autism spectrum disorders 7 whilst hypo-activation of the network has been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases 8). As such, noninvasive modulation of this network may represent a potential therapeutic intervention for a number of neurological and psychiatric pathologies linked to abnormal network activation. One possible tool to effect this modulation is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.9
In order to explore the default mode network's propensity towards and tolerance of modulation, we will be combining TMS (to the left inferior parietal lobe) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through this article, we will examine the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools.

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the combination of TMS and fMRI to examine the effects of brain stimulation on the default network.

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful ...

A Simple and Inexpensive Method for Determining Cold Sensitivity and Adaptation in Mice

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life. The cold plantar assay allows the objective and inexpensive assessment of cold sensitivity in mice, and can quantify both analgesia and hypersensitivity. Mice are acclimated on a glass plate, and a compressed dry ice pellet is held against the glass surface underneath the hindpaw. The latency to withdrawal from the cooling glass is used as a measure of cold sensitivity.
Cold sensation is also important for survival in regions with seasonal temperature shifts, and in order to maintain sensitivity animals must be able to adjust their thermal response thresholds to match the ambient temperature. The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) also allows the study of adaptation to changes in ambient temperature by testing the cold sensitivity of mice at temperatures ranging from 30 &#176;C to 5 &#176;C. Mice are acclimated as described above, but the glass plate is cooled to the desired starting temperature using aluminum boxes (or aluminum foil packets) filled with hot water, wet ice, or dry ice. The temperature of the plate is measured at the center using a filament T-type thermocouple probe. Once the plate has reached the desired starting temperature, the animals are tested as described above.
This assay allows testing of mice at temperatures ranging from innocuous to noxious. The CPA yields unambiguous and consistent behavioral responses in uninjured mice and can be used to quantify both hypersensitivity and analgesia. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) measures cold responsiveness between 30 &#176;C and 5 &#176;C, and can also measure cold adaptation. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life.  The cold ...

Limbal Approach-Subretinal Injection of Viral Vectors for Gene Therapy in Mice Retinal Pigment Epithelium

The eye is a small and enclosed organ which makes it an ideal target for gene therapy. Recently various strategies have been applied to gene therapy in retinopathies using non-viral and viral gene delivery to the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Subretinal injection is the best approach to deliver viral vectors directly to RPE cells. Before the clinical trial of a gene therapy, it is inevitable to validate the efficacy of the therapy in animal models of various retinopathies. Thus, subretinal injection in mice becomes a fundamental technique for an ocular gene therapy. In this protocol, we provide the easy and replicable technique for subretinal injection of viral vectors to experimental mice. This technique is modified from the intravitreal injection, which is widely used technique in ophthalmology clinics. The representative results of RPE/choroid/scleral complex flat-mount will help to understand the efficacy of this technique and adjust the volume and titer of viral vectors for the extent of gene transduction.

Subretinal injection is a surgical technique for effective gene delivery to retinal pigment epithelium in the mouse eye. Here we describe an easy and replicable method for subretinal injection of viral vectors to retinal pigment epithelium in experimental mice.

The eye is a small and enclosed organ which makes it an ideal target for gene therapy. Recently various strategies have been applied to gene therapy in ...

Online Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Protocol for Measuring Cortical Physiology Associated with Response Inhibition

We describe the development of a reproducible, child-friendly motor response inhibition task suitable for online Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) characterization of primary motor cortex (M1) excitability and inhibition. Motor response inhibition prevents unwanted actions and is abnormal in several neuropsychiatric conditions. TMS is a non-invasive technology that can quantify M1 excitability and inhibition using single- and paired-pulse protocols and can be precisely timed to study cortical physiology with high temporal resolution. We modified the original Slater-Hammel (S-H) stop signal task to create a &#34;racecar&#34; version with TMS pulses time-locked to intra-trial events. This task is self-paced, with each trial initiating after a button push to move the racecar towards the 800 ms target. GO trials require a finger-lift to stop the racecar just before this target. Interspersed randomly are STOP trials (25%) during which the dynamically adjusted stop signal prompts subjects to prevent finger-lift. For GO trials, TMS pulses were delivered at 650 ms after trial onset; whereas, for STOP trials, the TMS pulses occurred 150 ms after the stop signal. The timings of the TMS pulses were decided based on electroencephalography (EEG) studies showing event-related changes in these time ranges during stop signal tasks. This task was studied in 3 blocks at two study sites (n=38) and we recorded behavioral performance and event-related motor-evoked potentials (MEP). Regression modelling was used to analyze MEP amplitudes using age as a covariate with multiple independent variables (sex, study site, block, TMS pulse condition [single- vs. paired-pulse], trial condition [GO, successful STOP, failed STOP]). The analysis showed that TMS pulse condition (p&#60;0.0001) and its interaction with trial condition (p=0.009) were significant. Future applications for this online S-H/TMS paradigm include the addition of simultaneous EEG acquisition to measure TMS-evoked EEG potentials. A potential limitation is that in children, the TMS pulse sound could&#160;affect behavioral task performance.

We describe an experimental procedure to quantify excitability and inhibition of primary motor cortex during a motor response inhibition task by using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation throughout the course of a Stop Signal Task.

We describe the development of a reproducible, child-friendly motor response inhibition task suitable for online Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) ...

The Combined Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Robotic Therapy for the Upper Limb

Neurologic disorders such as stroke and cerebral palsy are leading causes of long-term disability and can lead to severe incapacity and restriction of daily activities due to lower and upper limb impairments. Intensive physical and occupational therapy are still considered main treatments, but new adjunct therapies to standard rehabilitation that may optimize functional outcomes are being studied.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that polarizes underlying brain regions through the application of weak direct currents through electrodes on the scalp, modulating cortical excitability. Increased interest in this technique can be attributed to its low cost, ease of use, and effects on human neural plasticity. Recent research has been performed to determine the clinical potential of tDCS in diverse conditions such as depression, Parkinson&#39;s disease, and motor rehabilitation after stroke. tDCS helps enhance brain plasticity and seems to be a promising technique in rehabilitation programs.
A number of robotic devices have been developed to assist in the rehabilitation of upper limb function after stroke. The rehabilitation of motor deficits is often a long process requiring multidisciplinary approaches for a patient to achieve maximum independence. These devices do not intend to replace manual rehabilitation therapy; instead, they were designed as an additional tool to rehabilitation programs, allowing immediate perception of results and tracking of improvements, thus helping patients to stay motivated.
Both tDSC and robot-assisted therapy are promising add-ons to stroke rehabilitation and target the modulation of brain plasticity, with several reports describing their use to be associated with conventional therapy and the improvement of therapeutic outcomes. However, more recently, some small clinical trials have been developed that describe the associated use of tDCS and robot-assisted therapy in stroke rehabilitation. In this article, we describe the combined methods used in our institute for improving motor performance after stroke.

The combined use of transcranial direct current stimulation and robotic therapy as an add-on for conventional rehabilitation therapy may result in improved therapeutic outcomes due to modulation of brain plasticity. In this article, we describe the combined methods used in our institute for improving motor performance after stroke.

Neurologic disorders such as stroke and cerebral palsy are leading causes of long-term disability and can lead to severe incapacity and restriction of ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for several neuropsychiatric diseases. The biological effects of tDCS are not fully understood, which is in part explained due to the difficulty in obtaining human brain tissue. This protocol describes a tDCS mouse model that uses a chronically implanted electrode allowing the study of the long-lasting biological effects of tDCS. In this experimental model, tDCS changes the cortical gene expression and offers a prominent contribution to the understanding of the rationale for its therapeutic use.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation tDCS in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a therapeutic technique proposed to treat psychiatric diseases. An animal model is essential for understanding the specific biological alterations evoked by tDCS. This protocol describes a tDCS mouse model that uses a chronically implanted electrode.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for ...

Bilateral Assessment of the Corticospinal Pathways of the Ankle Muscles Using Navigated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Distal leg muscles receive neural input from motor cortical areas via the corticospinal tract, which is one of the main motor descending pathway in humans and can be assessed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Given the role of distal leg muscles in upright postural and dynamic tasks, such as walking, a growing research interest in the assessment and modulation of the corticospinal tracts relative to the function of these muscles has emerged in the last decade. However, methodological parameters used in previous work have varied across studies making the interpretation of results from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies less robust. Therefore, use of a standardized TMS protocol specific to the assessment of leg muscles&#39; corticomotor response (CMR) will allow for direct comparison of results across studies and cohorts. The objective of this paper is to present a protocol that provides the flexibility to simultaneously assess the bilateral CMR of two main ankle antagonistic muscles, the tibialis anterior and soleus, using single pulse TMS with a neuronavigation system. The present protocol is applicable while the examined muscle is either fully relaxed or isometrically contracted at a defined percentage of maximum isometric voluntary contraction. Using each subject&#39;s structural MRI with the neuronavigation system ensures accurate and precise positioning of the coil over the leg cortical representations during assessment. Given the inconsistency in CMR derived measures, this protocol also describes a standardized calculation of these measures using automated algorithms. Though this protocol is not conducted during upright postural or dynamic tasks, it&#160;can be used to assess bilaterally any pair of leg muscles, either antagonistic or synergistic, in both neurologically intact and impaired subjects.

The present protocol describes the simultaneous, bilateral assessment of the corticomotor response of the tibialis anterior and soleus during rest and tonic voluntary activation using a single pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation and neuronavigation system.

Distal leg muscles receive neural input from motor cortical areas via the corticospinal tract, which is one of the main motor descending pathway in humans ...

Whole-Brain 3D Activation and Functional Connectivity Mapping in Mice using Transcranial Functional Ultrasound Imaging

Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging is a novel brain imaging modality that relies on the high-sensitivity measure of the cerebral blood volume achieved by ultrafast doppler angiography. As brain perfusion is strongly linked to local neuronal activity, this technique allows the whole-brain 3D mapping of task-induced regional activation as well as resting-state functional connectivity, non-invasively, with unmatched spatio-temporal resolution and operational simplicity. In comparison with fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), a main advantage of fUS imaging consists in enabling a complete compatibility with awake and behaving animal experiments. Moreover, fMRI brain mapping in mice, the most used preclinical model in Neuroscience, remains technically challenging due to the small size of the brain and the difficulty to maintain stable physiological conditions. Here we present a simple, reliable and robust protocol for whole-brain fUS imaging in anesthetized and awake mice using an off-the-shelf commercial fUS system with a motorized linear transducer, yielding significant cortical activation following sensory stimulation as well as reproducible 3D functional connectivity pattern for network identification.

This protocol describes the quantification of volumetric cerebral hemodynamic variations in the mouse brain using functional ultrasound (fUS). Procedures for 3D functional activation map following sensory stimulation as well as resting-state functional connectivity are provided as illustrative examples, in anesthetized and awake mice.

Functional ultrasound (fUS) imaging is a novel brain imaging modality that relies on the high-sensitivity measure of the cerebral blood volume achieved by ...