Name: microcrystal electron diffraction of small molecules
Uploaded: 2021-03-15T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microcrystal Electron Diffraction of Small Molecules at JoVE.com

The Gonen lab is supported by funds from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. This study was supported by the National Institutes of Health P41GM136508.

1. Preparing small molecule samples
<ol>
	<li>Transfer a small amount (0.01 - 1 mg) of powder, liquid, or solids into a small vial or tube.</li>
	<li>For samples already in powder form, seal the tube using the cap until the sample is needed. Dry the liquid samples into powders prior to attempts at method 1 (step 3) or 2 (step 4). 
	&#8203;NOTE: Samples dissolved in liquid may use method 3 (5.X) below</li>
</ol>
2. Preparing TEM grids
NOTE: Some TEMs with autoloader...

<ol>
	<li>Shi, D., Nannenga, B. L., Iadanza, M. G., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+electron+crystallography+of+protein+microcrystals.">Three-dimensional electron crystallography of protein microcrystals.</a> eLife. 2, 01345 (2013).</li><li>Nannenga, B. L., Shi, D., Leslie, A. G. W., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+structure+determination+by+continuous-rotation+data+collection+in+MicroED.">High-resolution structure determination by continuous-rotation data collection in MicroED.</a> Nature Methods. 11 (9), 927-930 (2014).</li><li>Hattne, J., Martynowycz, M. W., Penczek, P. A., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MicroED+with+the+Falcon+III+direct+electron+detector.">MicroED with the Falcon III direct electron detector.</a> IUCrJ. 6 (5), 921-926 (2019).</li><li>Hattne, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MicroED+data+collection+and+processing.">MicroED data collection and processing.</a> Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations and Advances. 71 (4), 353-360 (2015).</li><li>Henderson, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+potential+and+limitations+of+neutrons,+electrons+and+X-rays+for+atomic+resolution+microscopy+of+unstained+biological+molecules.">The potential and limitations of neutrons, electrons and X-rays for atomic resolution microscopy of unstained biological molecules.</a> Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics. 28 (2), 171-193 (1995).</li><li>Martynowycz, M. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MicroED+structure+of+the+human+adenosine+receptor+determined+from+a+single+nanocrystal+in+LCP.">MicroED structure of the human adenosine receptor determined from a single nanocrystal in LCP.</a> BioRxiv. , 316109 (2020).</li><li>Martynowycz, M. W., Zhao, W., Hattne, J., Jensen, G. J., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collection+of+continuous+rotation+MicroED+data+from+ion+beam-milled+crystals+of+any+size.">Collection of continuous rotation MicroED data from ion beam-milled crystals of any size.</a> Structure. 27 (3), 545-548 (2019).</li><li>Martynowycz, M. W., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ligand+incorporation+into+protein+microcrystals+for+MicroED+by+on-grid+soaking.">Ligand incorporation into protein microcrystals for MicroED by on-grid soaking.</a> Structure. , (2020).</li><li>Martynowycz, M. W., Khan, F., Hattne, J., Abramson, J., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MicroED+structure+of+lipid-embedded+mammalian+mitochondrial+voltage-dependent+anion+channel.">MicroED structure of lipid-embedded mammalian mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (51), 32380-32385 (2020).</li><li>Jones, C. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+CryoEM+method+MicroED+as+a+powerful+tool+for+small+molecule+structure+determination.">The CryoEM method MicroED as a powerful tool for small molecule structure determination.</a> ACS Central Science. 4 (11), 1587-1592 (2018).</li><li>Dick, M., Sarai, N. S., Martynowycz, M. W., Gonen, T., Arnold, F. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tailoring+tryptophan+synthase+TrpB+for+selective+quaternary+carbon+bond+formation.">Tailoring tryptophan synthase TrpB for selective quaternary carbon bond formation.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 141 (50), 19817-19822 (2019).</li><li>Gallagher-Jones, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sub-&#229;ngstr&#246;m+cryo-EM+structure+of+a+prion+protofibril+reveals+a+polar+clasp.">Sub-&#229;ngstr&#246;m cryo-EM structure of a prion protofibril reveals a polar clasp.</a> Nature Structural &amp; Molecular Biology. 25 (2), 131-134 (2018).</li><li>Ting, C. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+a+scaffold+peptide+in+the+biosynthesis+of+amino+acid-derived+natural+products.">Use of a scaffold peptide in the biosynthesis of amino acid-derived natural products.</a> Science. 365 (6450), 280-284 (2019).</li><li>de la Cruz, M. J., Martynowycz, M. W., Hattne, J., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MicroED+data+collection+with+SerialEM.">MicroED data collection with SerialEM.</a> Ultramicroscopy. 201, 77-80 (2019).</li><li>Mastronarde, D. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+electron+microscope+tomography+using+robust+prediction+of+specimen+movements.">Automated electron microscope tomography using robust prediction of specimen movements.</a> Journal of Structural Biology. 152 (1), 36-51 (2005).</li><li>Schorb, M., Haberbosch, I., Hagen, W. J. H., Schwab, Y., Mastronarde, D. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Software+tools+for+automated+transmission+electron+microscopy.">Software tools for automated transmission electron microscopy.</a> Nature Methods. 16 (6), 471-477 (2019).</li><li>Kabsch, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=XDS.">XDS.</a> Acta Crystallographica Section D Biological Crystallography. 66 (2), 125-132 (2010).</li><li>Winter, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DIALS:+Implementation+and+evaluation+of+a+new+integration+package.">DIALS: Implementation and evaluation of a new integration package.</a> Acta Crystallographica Section D. 74 (2), 85-97 (2018).</li><li>de la Cruz, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic-resolution+structures+from+fragmented+protein+crystals+with+the+cryoEM+method+MicroED.">Atomic-resolution structures from fragmented protein crystals with the cryoEM method MicroED.</a> Nature Methods. 14 (4), 399-402 (2017).</li><li>Shi, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+collection+of+MicroED+data+for+macromolecular+crystallography.">The collection of MicroED data for macromolecular crystallography.</a> Nature Protocols. 11 (5), 895-904 (2016).</li><li>Nannenga, B. L., Shi, D., Hattne, J., Reyes, F. E., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+of+catalase+determined+by+MicroED.">Structure of catalase determined by MicroED.</a> eLife. 3, 03600 (2014).</li><li>Martynowycz, M. W., Zhao, W., Hattne, J., Jensen, G. J., Gonen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Qualitative+Analyses+of+Polishing+and+Precoating+FIB+Milled+Crystals+for+MicroED.">Qualitative Analyses of Polishing and Precoating FIB Milled Crystals for MicroED.</a> Structure. 27 (10), 1594-1600 (2019).</li></ol>

Sample preparation is typically an iterative process, where optimizations are made after sessions of screening and data collection. For small-molecule samples, it is often prudent to first attempt grid preparation without glow-discharging the grids, since many pharmaceuticals tend to be hydrophobic10,11. If the grids have too few nanocrystalline deposits, it is a good idea to try again after first glow-discharging the grids. It may be the case that the crystals f...

Microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) is an electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) method for determining atomic resolution structures from sub-micrometer sized crystals1,2. Crystals are applied to standard transmission electron microscope (TEM) grids and frozen by either plunging into liquid ethane or liquid nitrogen. Grids are then loaded into a TEM operating at cryogenic temperatures. Crystals are located on the grid and screened for initial diffraction quality. Continuous rotation MicroED data are collected from a subset of the screened crystals, where the data are saved using a fast camera as a movie3. These movies are converted to a standard crystallographic format and processed almost identically as an X-ray crystallography experiment4.
MicroED was originally developed to investigate protein microcrystals1,2. A bottleneck in protein crystallography is growing large, well-ordered crystals for traditional synchrotron X-ray diffraction experiments. As electrons interact with matter orders of magnitude stronger than X-rays, the limitations of the crystal size needed to produce detectable diffraction is considerably smaller5. Additionally, the ratio of elastic to inelastic scattering events is more favorable for electrons, suggesting that more useful data can be collected with a smaller overall exposure5. Constant developments have allowed for MicroED data to be collected from the most challenging microcrystals6,7,8,9.
Recently, MicroED has been shown to be a powerful tool for determining the structures of small molecule pharmaceuticals from apparently amorphous materials10,11,12,13. These powders can come straight from a bottle of purchased reagent, a purification column, or even from crushing a pill into a fine powder10. These powders appear amorphous by eye, but may be either entirely composed of nanocrystals or merely contain trace amounts of nanocrystalline deposits in a greater non-crystalline, amorphous fraction. Application of the material to the grid is facile, and the subsequent steps of crystal identification, screening, and data collection might even be automated in the near future14. While others may use different methods for sample preparation and data collection, here the protocols developed and used in the Gonen laboratory for preparing samples of small molecules for MicroED and for data collection are detailed.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.1-1.5mL Eppendorf tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-282-300</td>
			<td>Any vial or tube will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autogrid clips</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher</td>
			<td>1036173</td>
			<td>Clipped grids are not required for MicroED. They are required for Thermo-Fisher TEMs equipped with an autoloader system.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autogrid C-rings</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher</td>
			<td>1036171</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbamazapine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C4024-1G</td>
			<td>Any amount will suffice for these experiments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CMOS based detector</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher</td>
			<td>CetaD 16M</td>
			<td>We used a CetaD 16M, but any detector with rolling shutter mode or sufficiently fast readout is acceptable.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Delphi software</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Software on Thermo-Fisher TEM systems that allows for manual rotation of the sample stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EPU-D software</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Commercial software for the acquisition of MicroED data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass cover slides</td>
			<td>Hampton</td>
			<td>HR3-231</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glow discharger</td>
			<td>Pelco</td>
			<td>easiGlow</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High PrecisionTweezers</td>
			<td>EMS</td>
			<td>78325-AC</td>
			<td>Any high precision tweezer will do</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid nitrogen vessel</td>
			<td>Spear Lab</td>
			<td>FD-800</td>
			<td>A standard foam vessel for handling specimens under liquid nitrogen - 800mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SerialEM software</td>
			<td>UC Boulder</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Free software distributed by D. Mastronarde. Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEM grids</td>
			<td>Quantifoil/EMS</td>
			<td>Q310CMA</td>
			<td>Multi-A 300 mesh grids were used here, but any thin carbon grids will work. For these small molecules, we suggest starting with continuous carbon.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>transmission electron microscope (TEM)</td>
			<td>Thermo-Fisher</td>
			<td>Talos Arctica</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whatman circular filter paper</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>WHA1001090</td>
			<td>90mm or larger</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

microcrystal electron diffraction of small molecules

A detailed protocol for preparing small molecule samples for microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) experiments is described. MicroED has been developed to solve structures of proteins and small molecules using standard electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) equipment. In this way, small molecules, peptides, soluble proteins, and membrane proteins have recently been determined to high resolutions. Protocols are presented here for preparing grids of small-molecule pharmaceuticals using the drug carbamazepine as an example. Protocols for screening and collecting data are presented. Additional steps in the overall process, such as data integration, structure determination, and refinement are presented elsewhere. The time required to prepare the small-molecule grids is estimated to be less than 30 min.

MicroED is a cryoEM method that leverages the strong interactions between electrons and matter, which allows for the investigation of vanishingly small crystals12,13. After these steps, it is expected to have a diffraction movie in crystallographic format collected from microcrystals (Movie 1). Here, the technique is demonstrated using carbamazepine12. The results show a continuous rotation MicroED dataset from a carbamaze...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microcrystal Electron Diffraction of Small Molecules at JoVE.com

Microcrystal Electron Diffraction of Small Molecules

Here, we describe the procedures developed in our laboratory for preparing powders of small molecule crystals for microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) experiments.

A detailed protocol for preparing small molecule samples for microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) experiments is described. MicroED has been ...

In this procedure, we show how to proceed from a small molecule powder to a three-dimensional structure in minutes. This is a transformative technique for the chemistry community. Many compounds do not easily grow into large crystals.With MicroED, we can determine atomic resolution structures from nanometer size crystals. Demonstrating the procedure will be Dr.Mike Martynowycz who is a professor at UCLA. To begin, transfer a small amount of powder, liquid or solids into a small vial or tube.For samples already in powder form, seal the tube using the cap until the sample is needed. Similarly, dry the liquid samples into powders. Wrap plastic film around one end of a glass cover slide.Place the TEM grids onto the film on top of the cover slide with the brown color carbon side facing up. Then, place the slide with grids into the glow discharge chamber and glow discharge the cover slide for approximately 30 seconds using the negative setting at 15 picoamperes. Store the grids on the cover slide inside a glass Petri dish lined with filter paper prior to adding the sample to the grids.Remove the glow discharge TEM grid from the covered Petri dish using tweezers and place it onto a circular filter paper with the carbon side facing up. Using a small spatula, remove a very small scoop of powder and place it onto a small square glass cover slip just next to the TEM grid on the filter paper. Place another small square glass slide or cover slip on top of the powder.With fingers, gently rubbed the two glass slides together to make a fine powder. Angle the cover slips and position them just above the TEM grid on the filter paper and continue to rub the cover slips together just a few centimeters above the glow discharged TEM grid. Observe if the powder is falling toward the grid.Uncover the finely ground powder by removing one of the two glass cover slips. Then gently brush the fine powder off from the cover slip onto the TEM grid using a piece of filter paper. Grab the edge of the TEM grid using a set set of tweezers, assuring that the tips do not puncture any of the grid squares.Lift the grid one to two centimeters above the filter paper and angle the grid at 90 degrees to the paper below. Gently tap the tweezers while keeping the grid firmly tweezed to remove any loose powder. Freeze the grid by moving the tip of the tweezers with the grid directly into a liquid nitrogen container by hand and wait until the grid and tweezers stop boiling.Under liquid nitrogen, place the grid in the sample holder with the carbon side oriented such that the sample will be hit by the beam prior to the carbon support film. Load the sample holder into the TEM assuring that the grid is always kept at liquid nitrogen temperatures. For auto loader systems, place the clipped grids into a cassette in a liquid nitrogen cooled container, which allows the auto loader robotics to accept the cassette while keeping the samples safe for shuttling between the auto loader and the column.Open the TEM column valves and adjust the magnification using the hand panels to the lowest magnification possible. Find the beam by adjusting the intensity knob on the hand panels such that a round bright area is visible on the fluorescent screen. Take an all grid atlas at low magnification using appropriate software ensuring that the microscope is well aligned for both low and high magnification imaging prior to collecting high resolution MicroED data.Identify grid squares without broken carbon and visible black or dark grains on the film. Navigate around the grid either physically using the joystick on the hand panels or virtually on the collected atlas to search for grid squares that are not broken and contain micro crystals. Add the center of each of these squares to a list of grid locations for investigation, which can be added to a notebook in the microscope user interface or in the microscope automation software.Set the magnification between 500 to 1300x. Adjust the centric height at each stored grid location and update the saved z-value to the positions noted. Search either on the fluorescent screen or on a flat camera for small black spots or grains on the grid.A good sample will often have sharp edges at high magnification suggesting crystal in order. Move a located potential crystal to the center of the screen and increase the magnification such that the TEM enters high magnification mode. Insert a selected area aperture and change the aperture to a larger or smaller size to ensure that the selected area is larger than the crystal.Switch to defraction mode by pressing the defraction button on the TEM hand panels assuring that the fluorescent screen is inserted. Adjust the camera length using the magnification knob such that the edge is at least one angstrom resolution. Adjust the diffraction focus such that the central spot is as sharp and small as possible.Using the diffraction shift knobs, move the central beam to the center of the fluorescent screen. Insert the beam stop making sure the beam is behind it. Lift the fluorescent screen and take a short exposure on the camera.Inspect the corresponding defraction pattern, making sure that the pattern will have sharp spots that are regularly arranged in columns and rows. Save the crystal coordinates in either the TEM user interface or by writing them down, then repeat diffraction screening for all the potential crystals of interest on the current grid square. Center the screened crystal at a magnification greater than 1000x and adjust the centric height of the crystal using either an automatic routine or by hand.Insert the selected area aperture that best fits the crystal size and shape. Tilt the stage in the negative and positive directions until the image is occluded by the grid bars. And note these angles for data collection purposes by reading the data out every one second on a modern camera with a rolling shutter readout mode.Set the rotation rate by specifying the percent of the maximum tilt speed and when to stop in the microscope user interface or dedicated software. Save the data in a variety of formats says either individual frames or as a stack of images. A defraction movie in crystallographic format collected from micro crystals shows a continuous rotation MicroED dataset from a carbamazepine micro crystal identified on a TEM grid.After data collection, integration, and structure solution, a high resolution structure is determined and its clarity depends on the quality and completeness of the data. Applying the sample to the grid is critical for acquiring good data. Following this method, the data can be further processed using standard crystallographic software.Demonstrating that MicroED is a powerful method for small molecules has opened its use worldwide for solving new structures of critically important molecules.

microcrystal-electron-diffraction-of-small-molecules

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Microcrystallography of Protein Crystals and In Cellulo Diffraction

The advent of high-quality microfocus beamlines at many synchrotron facilities has permitted the routine analysis of crystals smaller than 10 &#181;m in their largest dimension, which used to represent a challenge. We present two alternative workflows for the structure determination of protein microcrystals by X-ray crystallography with a particular focus on crystals grown in vivo. The microcrystals are either extracted from cells by sonication and purified by differential centrifugation, or analyzed in cellulo after cell sorting by flow cytometry of crystal-containing cells. Optionally, purified crystals or crystal-containing cells are soaked in heavy atom solutions for experimental phasing. These samples are then prepared for diffraction experiments in a similar way by application onto a micromesh support and flash cooling in liquid nitrogen. We briefly describe and compare serial diffraction experiments of isolated microcrystals and crystal-containing cells using a microfocus synchrotron beamline to produce datasets suitable for phasing, model building and refinement.
These workflows are exemplified with crystals of the Bombyx mori cypovirus 1 (BmCPV1) polyhedrin produced by infection of insect cells with a recombinant baculovirus. In this case study, in cellulo analysis is more efficient than analysis of purified crystals and yields a structure in ~8 days from expression to refinement.

Microcrystallography of Protein Crystals and In Cellulo Diffraction

A protocol is presented for X-ray crystallography using protein microcrystals. Two examples analyzing in vivo-grown microcrystals after purification or in cellulo are compared.

The advent of high-quality microfocus beamlines at many synchrotron facilities has permitted the routine analysis of crystals smaller than 10 &#181;m in ...

Force Spectroscopy of Single Protein Molecules Using an Atomic Force Microscope

The determination of the folding process of proteins from their amino acid sequence to their native 3D structure is an important problem in biology. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) can address this problem by enabling stretching and relaxation of single protein molecules, which gives direct evidence of specific unfolding and refolding characteristics. AFM-based single-molecule force-spectroscopy (AFM-SMFS) provides a means to consistently measure high-energy conformations in proteins that are not possible in traditional bulk (biochemical) measurements. Although numerous papers were published to show principles of AFM-SMFS, it is not easy to conduct SMFS experiments due to a lack of an exhaustively complete protocol. In this study, we briefly illustrate the principles of AFM and extensively detail the protocols, procedures, and data analysis as a guideline to achieve good results from SMFS experiments. We demonstrate representative SMFS results of single protein mechanical unfolding measurements and we provide troubleshooting strategies for some commonly encountered problems.

We describe the detailed procedures and strategies to measure the mechanical properties and mechanical unfolding pathways of single protein molecules using an atomic force microscope. We also show representative results as a reference for selection and justification of good single protein molecule recordings.

The determination of the folding process of proteins from their amino acid sequence to their native 3D structure is an important problem in biology. ...

Semi-automated Biopanning of Bacterial Display Libraries for Peptide Affinity Reagent Discovery and Analysis of Resulting Isolates

Biopanning bacterial display libraries is a proven technique for peptide affinity reagent discovery for recognition of both biotic and abiotic targets. Peptide affinity reagents can be used for similar applications to antibodies, including sensing and therapeutics, but are more robust and able to perform in more extreme environments. Specific enrichment of peptide capture agents to a protein target of interest is enhanced using semi-automated sorting methods which improve binding and wash steps and therefore decrease the occurrence of false positive binders. A semi-automated sorting method is described herein for use with a commercial automated magnetic-activated cell sorting device with an unconstrained bacterial display sorting library expressing random 15-mer peptides. With slight modifications, these methods are extendable to other automated devices, other sorting libraries, and other organisms. A primary goal of this work is to provide a comprehensive methodology and expound the thought process applied in analyzing and minimizing the resulting pool of candidates. These techniques include analysis of on-cell binding using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), to assess affinity and specificity during sorting and in comparing individual candidates, and the analysis of peptide sequences to identify trends and consensus sequences for understanding and potentially improving the affinity to and specificity for the target of interest.

Biopanning bacterial display libraries is a proven technique for discovery of peptide affinity reagents, a robust alternative to antibodies. The semi-automated sorting method herein has streamlined biopanning to decrease the occurrence of false positives. Here we illustrate the thought process and techniques applied in evaluating candidates and minimizing downstream analysis.

Biopanning bacterial display libraries is a proven technique for peptide affinity reagent discovery for recognition of both biotic and abiotic targets. ...

Capturing the Interaction Kinetics of an Ion Channel Protein with Small Molecules by the Bio-layer Interferometry Assay

The bio-layer interferometry (BLI) assay is a valuable tool for measuring protein-protein and protein-small molecule interactions. Here, we first describe the application of this novel label-free technique to study the interaction of human EAG1 (hEAG1) channel proteins with the small molecule PIP2. hEAG1 channel has been recognized as potential therapeutic target because of its aberrant overexpression in cancers and a few gain-of-function mutations involved in some types of neurological diseases. We purified&#160;hEAG1 channel proteins from a mammalian stable expression system and measured the interaction with PIP2 by BLI. The successful measurement of the kinetics of binding between hEAG1 protein and PIP2 demonstrates that the BLI assay is a potential high-throughput approach used for novel small-molecule ligand screening in ion channel pharmacology.

The protocol here describes the interactions of purified hEAG1 ion channel protein with the small molecule lipid ligand phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2). The measurement demonstrates that BLI could be a potential method for novel small-molecule ion channel ligand screening.

The bio-layer interferometry (BLI) assay is a valuable tool for measuring protein-protein and protein-small molecule interactions. Here, we first describe ...

Analysis of &#946;-Amyloid-induced Abnormalities on Fibrin Clot Structure by Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy

This article presents methods for generating in vitro fibrin clots and analyzing the effect of beta-amyloid (A&#946;) protein on clot formation and structure by spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A&#946;, which forms neurotoxic amyloid aggregates in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), has been shown to interact with fibrinogen. This A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction makes the fibrin clot structurally abnormal and resistant to fibrinolysis. A&#946;-induced abnormalities in fibrin clotting may also contribute to cerebrovascular aspects of the AD pathology such as microinfarcts, inflammation, as well as, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Given the potentially critical role of neurovascular deficits in AD pathology, developing compounds which can inhibit or lessen the A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction has promising therapeutic value. In vitro methods by which fibrin clot formation can be easily and systematically assessed are potentially useful tools for developing therapeutic compounds. Presented here is an optimized protocol for in vitro generation of the fibrin clot, as well as analysis of the effect of A&#946; and A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction inhibitors. The clot turbidity assay is rapid, highly reproducible and can be used to test multiple conditions simultaneously, allowing for the screening of large numbers of A&#946;-fibrinogen inhibitors. Hit compounds from this screening can be further evaluated for their ability to ameliorate A&#946;-induced structural abnormalities of the fibrin clot architecture using SEM. The effectiveness of these optimized protocols is demonstrated here using TDI-2760, a recently identified A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction inhibitor.

Presented here are two methods that can be used individually or in combination to analyze the effect of beta-amyloid on fibrin clot structure. Included is a protocol for creating an in vitro fibrin clot, followed by clot turbidity and scanning electron microscopy methods.

This article presents methods for generating in vitro fibrin clots and analyzing the effect of beta-amyloid (A&#946;) protein on clot formation and ...

Single-Molecule Tracking Microscopy - A Tool for Determining the Diffusive States of Cytosolic Molecules

Single-molecule localization microscopy probes the position and motions of individual molecules in living cells with tens of nanometer spatial and millisecond temporal resolution. These capabilities make single-molecule localization microscopy ideally suited to study molecular level biological functions in physiologically relevant environments. Here, we demonstrate an integrated protocol for both acquisition and processing/analysis of single-molecule tracking data to extract the different diffusive states a protein of interest may exhibit. This information can be used to quantify molecular complex formation in living cells. We provide a detailed description of a camera-based 3D single-molecule localization experiment, as well as the subsequent data processing steps that yield the trajectories of individual molecules. These trajectories are then analyzed using a numerical analysis framework to extract the prevalent diffusive states of the fluorescently labeled molecules and the relative abundance of these states. The analysis framework is based on stochastic simulations of intracellular Brownian diffusion trajectories that are spatially confined by an arbitrary cell geometry. Based on the simulated trajectories, raw single-molecule images are generated and analyzed in the same way as experimental images. In this way, experimental precision and accuracy limitations, which are difficult to calibrate experimentally, are explicitly incorporated into the analysis workflow. The diffusion coefficient and relative population fractions of the prevalent diffusive states are determined by fitting the distributions of experimental values using linear combinations of simulated distributions. We demonstrate the utility of our protocol by resolving the diffusive states of a protein that exhibits different diffusive states upon forming homo- and hetero-oligomeric complexes in the cytosol of a bacterial pathogen.

3D single-molecule localization microscopy is utilized to probe the spatial positions and motion trajectories of fluorescently labeled proteins in living bacterial cells. The experimental and data analysis protocol described herein determines the prevalent diffusive behaviors of cytosolic proteins based on pooled single-molecule trajectories.

Single-molecule localization microscopy probes the position and motions of individual molecules in living cells with tens of nanometer spatial and ...

Micropatterning Transmission Electron Microscopy Grids to Direct Cell Positioning within Whole-Cell Cryo-Electron Tomography Workflows

Whole-cell cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) is a powerful technology that is used to produce nanometer-level resolution structures of macromolecules present in the cellular context and preserved in a near-native frozen-hydrated state. However, there are challenges associated with culturing and/or adhering cells onto TEM grids in a manner that is suitable for tomography while retaining the cells in their physiological state. Here, a detailed step-by-step protocol is presented on the use of micropatterning to direct and promote eukaryotic cell growth on TEM grids. During micropatterning, cell growth is directed by depositing extra-cellular matrix (ECM) proteins within specified patterns and positions on the foil of the TEM grid while the other areas remain coated with an anti-fouling layer. Flexibility in the choice of surface coating and pattern design makes micropatterning broadly applicable for a wide range of cell types. Micropatterning is useful for studies of structures within individual cells as well as more complex experimental systems such as host-pathogen interactions or differentiated multi-cellular communities. Micropatterning may also be integrated into many downstream whole-cell cryo-ET workflows, including correlative light and electron microscopy (cryo-CLEM) and focused-ion beam milling (cryo-FIB).

The goal of this protocol is to direct cell adhesion and growth to targeted areas of grids for cryo-electron microscopy. This is achieved by applying an anti-fouling layer that is ablated in user-specified patterns followed by deposition of extra-cellular matrix proteins in the patterned areas prior to cell seeding.

Whole-cell cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) is a powerful technology that is used to produce nanometer-level resolution structures of macromolecules ...

On-Chip Crystallization and Large-Scale Serial Diffraction at Room Temperature

Biochemical reactions and biological processes can be best understood by demonstrating how proteins transition among their functional states. Since cryogenic temperatures are non-physiological and may prevent, deter, or even alter protein structural dynamics, a robust method for routine X-ray diffraction experiments at room temperature is highly desirable. The crystal-on-crystal device and its accompanying hardware and software used in this protocol are designed to enable in situ X-ray diffraction at room temperature for protein crystals of different sizes without any sample manipulation. Here we present the protocols for the key steps from device assembly, on-chip crystallization, optical scanning, crystal recognition to X-ray shot planning and automated data collection. Since this platform requires no crystal harvesting nor any other sample manipulation, hundreds to thousands of protein crystals grown on chip can be introduced into an X-ray beam in a programmable and high-throughput manner.

This contribution describes how to set up protein crystallization on crystal-on-crystal devices and how to perform automated serial data collection at room temperature using the on-chip crystallization platform.

Biochemical reactions and biological processes can be best understood by demonstrating how proteins transition among their functional states. Since ...

The Extraction of Liver Glycogen Molecules for Glycogen Structure Determination

Liver glycogen is a hyperbranched glucose polymer that is involved in the maintenance of blood sugar levels in animals. The properties of glycogen are influenced by its structure. Hence, a suitable extraction method that isolates representative samples of glycogen is crucial to the study of this macromolecule. Compared to other extraction methods, a method that employs a sucrose density gradient centrifugation step can minimize molecular damage. Based on this method, a recent publication describes how the density of the sucrose solution used during centrifugation was varied (30%, 50%, 72.5%) to find the most suitable concentration to extract glycogen particles of a wide variety of sizes, limiting the loss of smaller particles. A 10 min boiling step was introduced to test its ability to denature glycogen degrading enzymes, thus preserving glycogen. The lowest sucrose concentration (30%) and the addition of the boiling step were shown to extract the most representative samples of glycogen.

An optimal sucrose concentration was determined for the extraction of liver glycogen using sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The addition of a 10 min boiling step to inhibit glycogen-degrading enzymes proved beneficial.

Liver glycogen is a hyperbranched glucose polymer that is involved in the maintenance of blood sugar levels in animals. The properties of glycogen are ...

Isolating Small Extracellular Vesicles and Extracting Their Peptidome

Identification of Peptides of Small Extracellular Vesicles from Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are typically secreted by the exocytosis of multivesicular bodies (MVBs). These nanovesicles with a diameter of &lt;200 nm are present in various body fluids. These sEVs regulate various biological processes such as gene transcription and translation, cell proliferation and survival, immunity and inflammation through their cargos, such as proteins, DNA, RNA, and metabolites. Currently, various techniques have been developed for sEVs isolation. Among them, the ultracentrifugation-based method is considered the gold standard and is widely used for sEVs isolation. The peptides are naturally biomacromolecules with less than 50 amino acids in length. These peptides participate in a variety of biological processes with biological activity, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and cell growth factors. The peptidome is intended to systematically analyze endogenous peptides in specific biological samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Here, we introduced a protocol to isolate sEVs by differential ultracentrifugation and extracted peptidome for identification by LC-MS/MS. This method identified hundreds of sEVs-derived peptides from bone marrow-derived macrophages.

Author Spotlight: Peptidome Extraction from Small Extracellular Vesicles Isolated from Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages 

This protocol describes a procedure to isolate small extracellular vesicles from macrophages by differential ultracentrifugation and extract the peptidome for identification by mass spectrometry.

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are typically secreted by the exocytosis of multivesicular bodies (MVBs). These nanovesicles with a diameter of ...