Name: studying dna looping by single-molecule fret
Uploaded: 2014-06-28T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET at JoVE.com

We thank James Waters, Gable Wadsworth and Bo Broadwater for critically reading the manuscript. We also thank four anonymous reviewers for providing useful comments. We acknowledge financial support from Georgia Institute of Technology, the Burroughs Wellcome Fund Career Award at the Scientific Interface, and the student research network grant from NSF Physics of Living Systems.

1. dsDNA Sample Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Design globally curved DNAs by repeating a 10-mer sequence. For example, 5&#8217;-GTGCCAGCAACAGATAGC - (TTTATCATCCTTTATCATCCX)7 - TTTCATTCGAGCTCGTTGTTG-3&#8217; is a 186-bp curved DNA where X is a random extra base and the sequence flanking the repeating 10-mer sequence are adapter sequences. 
	NOTE: In this example two 10-mers with opposite preferences to nucleosome formation based on a large-scale nucleosome occupancy study by Kap...

<ol>
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A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cooperative+kinking+at+distant+sites+in+mechanically+stressed+DNA.">Cooperative kinking at distant sites in mechanically stressed DNA.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 41, 6785-6792 (2011).</li><li>Shore, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+flexibility+studied+by+covalent+closure+of+short+fragments+into+circles.">DNA flexibility studied by covalent closure of short fragments into circles.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 78, 4833-4837 (1981).</li><li>Geggier, S., Vologodskii, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequence+dependence+of+DNA+bending+rigidity.">Sequence dependence of DNA bending rigidity.</a> Proc Nat Acad Sci U S A. 107, 15421-15426 (1992).</li><li>Smith, S. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+mechanical+measurements+of+the+elasticity+of+single+DNA+molecules+by+using+magnetic+beads.">Direct mechanical measurements of the elasticity of single DNA molecules by using magnetic beads.</a> Science. 258, 1122-1126 (1992).</li><li>Peters, J. P., Maher, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+curvature+and+flexibility+in+vitro+and+in+vivo.">DNA curvature and flexibility in vitro and in vivo.</a> Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics. 43, 23-63 (2010).</li><li>Cloutier, T. E., Widom, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spontaneous+sharp+bending+of+double-stranded+DNA.">Spontaneous sharp bending of double-stranded DNA.</a> Molecular Cell. 14, 355-362 (2004).</li><li>Du, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cyclization+of+short+DNA+fragments+and+bending+fluctuations+of+the+double+helix.">Cyclization of short DNA fragments and bending fluctuations of the double helix.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 102, 5397-5402 (2005).</li><li>Yuan, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=T4+DNA+ligase+is+more+than+an+effective+trap+of+cyclized+dsDNA.">T4 DNA ligase is more than an effective trap of cyclized dsDNA.</a> Nucl. 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NaCl-dependence of DNA flexibility and helical repeat.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 212, 363-376 (1990).</li><li>Bolshoy, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Curved+DNA+without+A-A:+experimental+estimation+of+all+16+DNA+wedge+angles.">Curved DNA without A-A: experimental estimation of all 16 DNA wedge angles.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 88, 2312-2316 (1991).</li><li>Gibson, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+of+DNA+fragments+in+yeast+by+one-step+assembly+of+overlapping+oligonucleotides.">Synthesis of DNA fragments in yeast by one-step assembly of overlapping oligonucleotides.</a> Nucl. 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A simple single-molecule assay based on FRET was used to study looping kinetics of DNAs of different intrinsic shapes. Curved DNAs can be prepared by repeating a 10-mer sequence in phase with the helical period of 10.5 bp, and their curvatures can be estimated using PAGE. These dsDNAs are designed with sticky ends to allow transient loop stabilization. We extracted the looping rate from the exponential rise in the number of looped molecules over time. The annealing rate constant between the disconnected sticky end segmen...

Understanding the mechanical properties of dsDNA is of fundamental importance in basic sciences and engineering applications. The structure of dsDNA is more complicated than a straight helical ladder because roll, tilt, and twist angles between successive base pairs can vary with sequence. Thermal fluctuations can cause dsDNA to undergo diverse modes of conformational fluctuations such as bending, twisting and stretching. Transitions such as melting and kinking can also occur in extreme conditions.
Among these motions, dsDNA bending has the most noticeable biological impact1. dsDNA bending is associated with gene repression or activation by bringing two distant sites close to each other. It also plays an important role in DNA packaging inside the cell nucleus or a viral capsid. Bending deformation of dsDNA can be visualized experimentally by high-resolution microscopy (AFM2 and TEM3), and the thermodynamics and kinetics can be studied by looping assays, which chemically link juxtaposed sites of the dsDNA.
One such assay is ligase-dependent cyclization4. In this assay, dsDNA molecules with &#8216;sticky&#8217; (cohesive) ends are circularized or dimerized by DNA ligase. By comparing the rates of circle and dimer formation, one can obtain an effective molar concentration of one end of the DNA in the vicinity of the other end, which is known as the J factor. This J factor is dimensionally equivalent to the probability density of finding one end of the DNA at a short distance from the other end, and thus reflects the flexibility of the DNA. Measuring the J factor as a function of DNA length reveals many characteristics about DNA mechanics including the persistence length4,5.
The worm-like chain (WLC) model has been widely regarded as the canonical polymer model for dsDNA mechanics based on its success in explaining the force-extension curves obtained in DNA pulling experiments6, and correctly predicting the J factors of dsDNAs longer than 200 bp7. However, using the cyclization assay on dsDNA molecules as short as 100 bp, Cloutier and Widom measured the J factors to be several orders of magnitude higher than the WLC model prediction8. A year later, Du et al. produced J factors in agreement with the WLC model using the cyclization assay with lower concentrations of ligase and attributed the anomalous result from the Widom group to high ligase concentrations used9. This controversy exemplifies the unavoidable influence of DNA ligase on cyclization kinetics when using the conventional assay9. Moreover, DNA ligase can also affect DNA structure and stiffness through nonspecific binding10,11.
To eliminate the technical concerns of protein-dependent looping assays, we recently demonstrated a protein-free looping assay based on Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)12. In this method, looped conformations are detected by FRET between the donor and acceptor attached near the sticky ends of a DNA molecule. An objective-type total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRFM) is used to record trajectories of reversible looping and unlooping events from surface-immobilized single DNA molecules for a prolonged period of time. This method features PCR-based assembly of DNA molecules to generate mismatch-free DNA molecules, which is a crucial improvement over a similar method by Vafabakhsh and Ha13. The single-molecule aspect of this protocol allows measurement of distributions in addition to ensemble averages while the FRET aspect allows one to measure DNA looping dynamics repeatedly from the same molecule, even in conditions that can impair ligase activity.
The TIRFM setup is shown in Figure 1. A custom-designed specimen stage is placed over an Olympus IX61 microscope body. 532 nm and 640 nm lasers are introduced from the side and are reflected by tiny elliptical mirrors14 into the high NA objective to achieve critical angle of incidence at the coverslip-water interface. We note that more widespread through-objective TIR using dichroic mirrors or prism-based TIR setups can also be used for this FRET application. The fluorescence image formed by the microscope is split into donor and acceptor images by a dichroic mirror. They are then re-imaged onto two halves of an EMCCD. Additional long-pass emission filters are used to reduce background signal.
Temperature control is essential for acquiring reproducible kinetic data. For temperature control, the objective is separated from the nosepiece of the microscope body to minimize heat transfer, and water from a temperature controlled chiller/heater is circulated through a brass collar that tightly fits around the interior metal beneath the objective jacket. This setup is able to achieve robust temperature control at the coverslip surface between 15 and 50 &#176;C (Figure 2). In this work, the sample temperature was maintained at 24 &#176;C.
The following protocol presents the step-by-step procedure for DNA construction, estimation of DNA shape, single-molecule experiment, and J factor determination.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="793">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Small DNA FRAG Extract Kit-100PR</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Bis-acrylamide 2% (w/v) solution 500 mL</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">VWR</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">97063-948</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">GeneRuler 100 bp DNA Ladder, 100-1000 bp</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Fermentas</td>
			<td>SM0241</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Mini Vertical PAGE System</td>
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			<td style="width:135px;">89032-300</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Syringe filter 0.2um CS50</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Trolox</td>
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			<td>triplet state quencher</td>
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			<td style="width:124px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
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			<td>oxygen scavenging system</td>
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			<td style="width:124px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">P8279-25UN</td>
			<td>oxygen scavenging system</td>
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			<td style="width:135px;">MPEG-SIL-2000-1g</td>
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			<td style="width:135px;">A2666</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Phusion Hot Start High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">New England Biolabs</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">Gel/PCR DNA Fragments Extraction Kit</td>
			<td>IBI Scientific</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Premium plain glass microscope slides</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Fisher Scientific Isotemp 1006s Recirculating Chiller/Heater</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td>temperature control</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">High Performance DPSS Laser 532nm 50mW&#160;</td>
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			<td>Cy3 excitation</td>
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			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:351px;">CUBE Fiber Pigtailed 640 nm, 30mW, Fiber, FC/APC Connector</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">650 nm BrightLine Dichroic Beamsplitter</td>
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			<td height="34" style="height:34px;width:351px;">LaserMUX Beam Combiner, reflects 514.5, 532, &#38; 543.5 nm lasers, 25 mm</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Brightline Fluorescence Filter 593/40</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">635 nm EdgeBasic LWP longpass Filter, 25 mm</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">IX51 inverted microscope frame</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Objective UApo N 100x/1.49 Oil TIRF</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:135px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Immersion oil type-F for fluorescence microscopy</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">IMMOIL-F30CC</td>
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		</tr>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">2mm Diameter 45&#176; Rod Lens Aluminum Coated&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Edmund optics</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">54-092</td>
			<td>miniature mirror</td>
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			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">1/4&#34; Travel Single-Axis Translation Stage</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
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			<td>translation of miniature mirror</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;">&#216;1&#34; Achromatic Doublet, ARC: 400-700 nm, f=200 mm</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">AC254-200-A</td>
			<td>focusing lens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Adjustable Mechanical Slit</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td>VA100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Dielectric Mirror</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">BB1-E02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">&#216;1&#34; Achromatic Doublet, f = 100 mm</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">AC254-100-A</td>
			<td>relay lens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Lens Mount for &#216;1&#34; Optics</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">LMR1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Dichroic Filter Mount</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">FFM1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Fixed Cage Cube Platform</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">B3C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">Kinematic Mount for &#216;1&#34; Optics</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">KM100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">N-BK7 Plano-Convex Lens, &#216;1&#34;, f = 40 mm</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">LA1422-A</td>
			<td>collimating lens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">N-BK7 Plano-Convex Lense, &#216;6.0 mm, f = 15 mm</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">LA1222-A</td>
			<td>telescope lens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="17">
			<td height="17" style="height:17px;width:351px;">N-BK7 Plano-Convex Lense, &#216;6.0 mm, f = 150 mm</td>
			<td style="width:124px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:135px;">LA1433-A</td>
			<td>telescope lens</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

studying dna looping by single-molecule fret

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into nucleosomes. Thermodynamics of dsDNA bending has been studied by a method called cyclization which relies on DNA ligase to covalently join short sticky ends of a dsDNA. However, ligation efficiency can be affected by many factors that are not related to dsDNA looping such as the DNA structure surrounding the joined sticky ends, and ligase can also affect the apparent looping rate through mechanisms such as nonspecific binding. Here, we show how to measure dsDNA looping kinetics without ligase by detecting transient DNA loop formation by FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer). dsDNA molecules are constructed using a simple PCR-based protocol with a FRET pair and a biotin linker. The looping probability density known as the J factor is extracted from the looping rate and the annealing rate between two disconnected sticky ends. By testing two dsDNAs with different intrinsic curvatures, we show that the J factor is sensitive to the intrinsic shape of the dsDNA.

DNA molecules used for the looping study consist of a duplex region of variable sequence and length and single-stranded overhangs that are complementary to each other. The overhangs, which are 7-base long, can anneal to each other to capture the looped state. Each overhang contains either Cy3 or Cy5 that is linked in the DNA backbone through amidite chemistry. The Cy5-overhang is also linked with biotin-TEG (15-atom Tetra-Ethylene Glycol spacer) for surface immobilization (see Figure 4A). All these modif...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET at JoVE.com

Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET

This study presents a detailed experimental procedure to measure looping dynamics of double-stranded DNA using single-molecule Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET). The protocol also describes how to extract the looping probability density called the J factor.

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into ...

studying-dna-looping-by-single-molecule-fret

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Single Molecule Methods for Monitoring Changes in Bilayer Elastic Properties

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition.  This regulation is due to a combination of specific lipid-protein interactions and more general lipid bilayer-protein interactions. These interactions are particularly important in pharmacological research, as many current pharmaceuticals on the market can alter the lipid bilayer material properties, which can lead to altered membrane protein function.   The formation of gramicidin channels are dependent on conformational changes in gramicidin subunits which are in turn dependent on the properties of the lipid.  Hence the gramicidin channel  current is a reporter of altered properties of the bilayer due to certain compounds.  

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition. This video-article details how to form a patch using bilayer patch electrodes, as well as how to use gramicidin channels as reporters of altered membrane properties.

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition.  This regulation is due to a combination of specific lipid-protein ...

Combining QD-FRET and Microfluidics to Monitor DNA Nanocomplex Self-Assembly in Real-Time

Advances in genomics continue to fuel the development of therapeutics that can target pathogenesis at the cellular and molecular level. Typically functional inside the cell, nucleic acid-based therapeutics require an efficient intracellular delivery system. One widely adopted approach is to complex DNA with a gene carrier to form nanocomplexes via electrostatic self-assembly, facilitating cellular uptake of DNA while protecting it against degradation. The challenge lies in the rational design of efficient gene carriers, since premature dissociation or overly stable binding would be detrimental to the cellular uptake and therapeutic efficacy. Nanocomplexes synthesized by bulk mixing showed a diverse range of intracellular unpacking and trafficking behavior, which was attributed to the heterogeneity in size and stability of nanocomplexes. Such heterogeneity hinders the accurate assessment of the self-assembly kinetics and adds to the difficulty in correlating their physical properties to transfection efficiencies or bioactivities. We present a novel convergence of nanophotonics (i.e. QD-FRET) and microfluidics to characterize the real-time kinetics of the nanocomplex self-assembly under laminar flow. QD-FRET provides a highly sensitive indication of the onset of molecular interactions and quantitative measure throughout the synthesis process, whereas microfluidics offers a well-controlled microenvironment to spatially analyze the process with high temporal resolution (~milliseconds). For the model system of polymeric nanocomplexes, two distinct stages in the self-assembly process were captured by this analytic platform. The kinetic aspect of the self-assembly process obtained at the microscale would be particularly valuable for microreactor-based reactions which are relevant to many micro- and nano-scale applications. Further, nanocomplexes may be customized through proper design of microfludic devices, and the resulting QD-FRET polymeric DNA nanocomplexes could be readily applied for establishing structure-function relationships. 

We present a novel and powerful integration of nanophotonics (QD-FRET) and microfluidics to investigate the formation of polyelectrolyte polyplexes, which is expected to provide better control and synthesis of uniform and customizable polyplexes for future nucleic acid-based therapeutics.

Advances in genomics continue to fuel the development of therapeutics that can target pathogenesis at the cellular and molecular level. Typically ...

Visualizing Single-molecule DNA Replication with Fluorescence Microscopy

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA template is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and replicated extensively after introduction of replication proteins and nucleotides (Figure 1). The growing product double-strand DNA (dsDNA) is extended with laminar flow and visualized by using an intercalating dye. Measuring the position of the growing DNA end in real time allows precise determination of replication rate (Figure 2). Furthermore, the length of completed DNA products reports on the processivity of replication. This experiment can be performed very easily and rapidly and requires only a fluorescence microscope with a reasonably sensitive camera.


This protocol demonstrates a simple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy technique for visualizing DNA replication by individual replisomes in real time.

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA ...

Automated System for Single Molecule Fluorescence Measurements of Surface-immobilized Biomolecules

Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) microscopy has been widely used to study the structure and dynamics of molecules of biological interest, such as nucleic acids and proteins. Single molecule FRET (sm-FRET) measurements on immobilized molecules permit long observations of the system -effectively until both dyes photobleach- resulting in time-traces that report on biomolecular dynamics with a broad range of timescales from milliseconds to minutes. To facilitate the acquisition of large number of traces for statistical analyses, the process must be automated and the sample environment should be tightly controlled over the entire measurement time (~12 hours). This is accomplished using an automated scanning confocal microscope that allows the interrogation of thousands of single molecules overnight, and a microfluidic cell that permits the controlled exchange of buffer, with restricted oxygen content and maintains a constant temperature throughout the entire measuring period. Here we show how to assemble the microfluidic device and how to activate its surface for DNA immobilization. Then we explain how to prepare a buffer to maximize the photostability and lifetime of the fluorophores. Finally, we show the steps involved in preparing the setup for the automated acquisition of time-resolved single molecule FRET traces of DNA molecules.

In this article we describe how we obtain FRET traces from individual DNA molecules immobilized to a surface using an automated scanning confocal microscope.

Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) microscopy has been widely used to study the structure and dynamics of molecules of biological interest, ...

Direct Observation of Enzymes Replicating DNA Using a Single-molecule DNA Stretching Assay

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. Linearized &lambda; DNA is modified to have a biotin on the end of one strand, and a digoxigenin moiety on the other end of the same strand. The biotinylated end is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and the digoxigeninated end to a small bead. The assembly of these DNA-bead tethers on the surface of a flow cell allows a laminar flow to be applied to exert a drag force on the bead. As a result, the DNA is stretched close to and parallel to the surface of the coverslip at a force that is determined by the flow rate (Figure 1). The length of the DNA is measured by monitoring the position of the bead. Length differences between single- and double-stranded DNA are utilized to obtain real-time information on the activity of the replication proteins at the fork. Measuring the position of the bead allows precise determination of the rates and processivities of DNA unwinding and polymerization (Figure 2).

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system.

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. ...

Single-Molecule Imaging of Nuclear Transport

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the last decade. The investigation of molecular interactions with high temporal and spatial resolutions deep within cells has remained challenging due to the inherently weak signals arising from individual molecules. Recent works by Yang et al. demonstrated that narrow-field epifluorescence microscopy allows visualization of nucleocytoplasmic transport at the single molecule level. By the single molecule approach, important kinetics, such as nuclear transport time and efficiency, for signal-dependent and independent cargo molecules have been obtained. Here we described a protocol for the methodological approach with an improved spatiotemporal resolution of 0.4 ms and 12 nm. The improved resolution enabled us to capture transient active transport and passive diffusion events through the nuclear pore complexes (NPC) in semi-intact cells. We expect this method to be used in elucidating other binding and trafficking events within cells.

Single molecule microscopy approch provided novel insights into nuclear transport.

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the ...

Monitoring Kinase and Phosphatase Activities Through the Cell Cycle by Ratiometric FRET

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such probes typically consist of variants of CFP and YFP, intervened by a phosphorylatable sequence and a phospho-binding domain. Upon phosphorylation, the probe changes conformation, which results in a change of the distance or orientation between CFP and YFP, leading to a change in FRET efficiency (Fig 1). Several probes have been published during the last decade, monitoring the activity balance of multiple kinases and phosphatases, including reporters of PKA2, PKB3, PKC4, PKD5, ERK6, JNK7, Cdk18, Aurora B9 and Plk19. Given the modular design, additional probes are likely to emerge in the near future10. 
Progression through the cell cycle is affected by stress signaling pathways 11. Notably, the cell cycle is regulated differently during unperturbed growth compared to when cells are recovering from stress12.Time-lapse imaging of cells through the cell cycle therefore requires particular caution. This becomes a problem particularly when employing ratiometric imaging, since two images with a high signal to noise ratio are required to correctly interpret the results. Ratiometric FRET imaging of cell cycle dependent changes in kinase and phosphatase activities has predominately been restricted to sub-sections of the cell cycle8,9,13,14.
Here, we discuss a method to monitor FRET-based probes using ratiometric imaging throughout the human cell cycle. The method relies on equipment that is available to many researchers in life sciences and does not require expert knowledge of microscopy or image processing.

FRET-based reporters are increasingly used to monitor kinase and phosphatase activities in live cells. Here we describe a method on how to use FRET-based reporters to assess cell cycle-dependent changes in target phosphorylation.

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such ...

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method makes it possible to count the numbers of protein molecules produced in one cell during sequential, five-minute time windows. It requires a fluorescence microscope with laser excitation power density of ~0.5 to 1 kW/cm2, which is sufficiently sensitive to detect single fluorescent protein molecules in live cells. The fluorescent reporter used in this method consists of three parts: a membrane targeting sequence, a fast-maturing, yellow fluorescent protein and a protease recognition sequence. The reporter is translationally fused to the N-terminus of a protein of interest. Cells are grown on a temperature-controlled microscope stage. Every five minutes, fluorescent molecules within cells are imaged (and later counted by analyzing fluorescence images) and subsequently photobleached so that only newly translated proteins are counted in the next measurement.
Fluorescence images resulting from this method can be analyzed by detecting fluorescent spots in each image, assigning them to individual cells and then assigning cells to cell lineages. The number of proteins produced within a time window in a given cell is calculated by dividing the integrated fluorescence intensity of spots by the average intensity of single fluorescent molecules. We used this method to measure expression levels in the range of 0-45 molecules in single 5 min time windows. This method enabled us to measure noise in the expression of the &lambda; repressor CI, and has many other potential applications in systems biology.

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC), to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method has been used to follow the stochastic expression dynamics of a transcription factor, the &lambda; repressor CI 1.

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells ...

Combining Single-molecule Manipulation and Imaging for the Study of Protein-DNA Interactions

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method offers the opportunity of investigating interactions occurring in solution (thus avoiding problems due to closeby surfaces as in other single molecule methods), controlling the DNA extension and tracking interaction dynamics as a function of both mechanical parameters and DNA sequence. The methods for establishing successful optical trapping and nanometer localization of single molecules are illustrated. We illustrate the experimental conditions allowing the study of interaction of lactose repressor (lacI), labeled with Atto532, with a DNA molecule containing specific target sequences (operators) for LacI binding. The method allows the observation of specific interactions at the operators, as well as one-dimensional diffusion of the protein during the process of target search. The method is broadly applicable to the study of protein-DNA interactions but also to molecular motors, where control of the tension applied to the partner track polymer (for example actin or microtubules) is desirable.

Here we describe the instrumentation and methods for detecting single fluorescently-labeled protein molecules interacting with a single DNA molecule suspended between two optically trapped microspheres.

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method ...

Visualizing the Interaction Between the Qdot-labeled Protein and Site-specifically Modified &#955; DNA at the Single Molecule Level

The fluorescence microscopy&#160;has made great contributions in dissecting the mechanisms of complex biological processes at the single molecule level. In single molecule assays for studying DNA-protein interactions, there are two important factors for consideration: the DNA substrate with enough length for easy observation and labeling a protein with a suitable fluorescent probe. 48.5 kb &#955; DNA is a good candidate for the DNA substrate. Quantum dots (Qdots), as a class of fluorescent probes, allow long-time observation (minutes to hours) and high-quality image acquisition. In this paper, we present a protocol to study DNA-protein interactions at the single-molecule level, which includes preparing a site-specifically modified &#955; DNA and labeling a target protein with streptavidin-coated Qdots. For a proof of concept, we choose ORC (origin recognition complex) in budding yeast as a protein of interest and visualize its interaction with an ARS (autonomously replicating sequence) using TIRFM. Compared with other fluorescent probes, Qdots have obvious advantages in single molecule studies due to its high stability against photobleaching, but it should be noted that this property limits its application in quantitative assays.

Visualizing the Interaction Between the Qdot-labeled Protein and Site-specifically Modified &amp;#955; DNA at the Single Molecule Level

Here, we present a protocol to study DNA-protein interactions by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) using a site-specifically modified &#955; DNA substrate and a Quantum-dot labeled protein.

The fluorescence microscopy&#160;has made great contributions in dissecting the mechanisms of complex biological processes at the single molecule level. ...