Name: studying oxidative stress caused by the mitis group streptococci in caenorhabditis elegans
Uploaded: 2019-03-23T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Oxidative Stress Caused by the Mitis Group Streptococci in Caenorhabditis elegans at JoVE.com

We thank Dr. Bing-Yan Wang, Dr. Gena Tribble (The University of Texas, School of Dentistry), Dr. Richard Lamont (University of Louisville, School of Dentistry), and Dr. Samuel Shelburne (MD Anderson Cancer Center) for providing laboratory and clinical strains of the mitis group streptococci. We also thank Dr. Keith Blackwell (Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School) for the C. elegans strains. Finally, we thank Dr. Danielle Garsin and her lab (The University of Texas, McGovern Medical School) for providing reagents and worm strains to conduct the study. Some worm strains were provided by the CGC, which is funded by NIH Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (P40 OD010440).

1. Preparation of THY (Todd-Hewitt Yeast Extract) Agar Plates
<ol>
	<li>For 1 L of media, add 30 g of Todd-Hewitt powder, 2 g of yeast extract and 20 g of agar to a 2 L Erlenmeyer flask. Add 970 mL of deionized water to the contents of the flask and include a stir bar. Autoclave the media at a temperature of 121 &#176;C and pressure of 15 lb/inch2 for 30 min. Thereafter, set the media on a stir plate and allow for cooling with gentle stirring.</li>
	<li>Pour the media into appropriately sized sterile Petri d...

<ol>
	<li>Human Microbiome Project, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure,+function+and+diversity+of+the+healthy+human+microbiome.">Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome.</a> Nature. 486 (7402), 207-214 (2012).</li><li>Mitchell, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptococcus+mitis:+walking+the+line+between+commensalism+and+pathogenesis.">Streptococcus mitis: walking the line between commensalism and pathogenesis.</a> Molecular Oral Microbiology. 26 (2), 89-98 (2011).</li><li>Dyson, C., Barnes, R. A., Harrison, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infective+endocarditis:+an+epidemiological+review+of+128+episodes.">Infective endocarditis: an epidemiological review of 128 episodes.</a> Journal of Infection. 38 (2), 87-93 (1999).</li><li>Sahasrabhojane, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Species-level+assessment+of+the+molecular+basis+of+fluoroquinolone+resistance+among+viridans+group+streptococci+causing+bacteraemia+in+cancer+patients.">Species-level assessment of the molecular basis of fluoroquinolone resistance among viridans group streptococci causing bacteraemia in cancer patients.</a> International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 43 (6), 558-562 (2014).</li><li>Shelburne, S. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptococcus+mitis+strains+causing+severe+clinical+disease+in+cancer+patients.">Streptococcus mitis strains causing severe clinical disease in cancer patients.</a> Emerging Infectious Diseases. 20 (5), 762-771 (2014).</li><li>van der Meer, J. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution,+antibiotic+susceptibility+and+tolerance+of+bacterial+isolates+in+culture-positive+cases+of+endocarditis+in+The+Netherlands.">Distribution, antibiotic susceptibility and tolerance of bacterial isolates in culture-positive cases of endocarditis in The Netherlands.</a> European Journal of Clinical Microbiology &amp; Infectious Diseases. 10 (9), 728-734 (1991).</li><li>Han, X. Y., Kamana, M., Rolston, K. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Viridans+streptococci+isolated+by+culture+from+blood+of+cancer+patients:+clinical+and+microbiologic+analysis+of+50+cases.">Viridans streptococci isolated by culture from blood of cancer patients: clinical and microbiologic analysis of 50 cases.</a> Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 44 (1), 160-165 (2006).</li><li>Hoshino, T., Fujiwara, T., Kilian, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+phylogenetic+and+phenotypic+analyses+to+identify+nonhemolytic+streptococci+isolated+from+bacteremic+patients.">Use of phylogenetic and phenotypic analyses to identify nonhemolytic streptococci isolated from bacteremic patients.</a> Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 43 (12), 6073-6085 (2005).</li><li>Kohno, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Infectious+complications+in+patients+receiving+autologous+CD34-selected+hematopoietic+stem+cell+transplantation+for+severe+autoimmune+diseases.">Infectious complications in patients receiving autologous CD34-selected hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for severe autoimmune diseases.</a> Transplant Infectious Disease. 11 (4), 318-323 (2009).</li><li>Zhu, L., Kreth, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+hydrogen+peroxide+in+environmental+adaptation+of+oral+microbial+communities.">The role of hydrogen peroxide in environmental adaptation of oral microbial communities.</a> Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. , 717843 (2012).</li><li>Okahashi, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrogen+peroxide+contributes+to+the+epithelial+cell+death+induced+by+the+oral+mitis+group+of+streptococci.">Hydrogen peroxide contributes to the epithelial cell death induced by the oral mitis group of streptococci.</a> PLoS One. 9 (1), 88136 (2014).</li><li>Stinson, M. W., Alder, S., Kumar, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Invasion+and+killing+of+human+endothelial+cells+by+viridans+group+streptococci.">Invasion and killing of human endothelial cells by viridans group streptococci.</a> Infection and Immunity. 71 (5), 2365-2372 (2003).</li><li>Rai, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptococcus+pneumoniae+secretes+hydrogen+peroxide+leading+to+DNA+damage+and+apoptosis+in+lung+cells.">Streptococcus pneumoniae secretes hydrogen peroxide leading to DNA damage and apoptosis in lung cells.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (26), 3421-3430 (2015).</li><li>Braun, J. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pneumococcal+pneumolysin+and+H(2)O(2)+mediate+brain+cell+apoptosis+during+meningitis.">Pneumococcal pneumolysin and H(2)O(2) mediate brain cell apoptosis during meningitis.</a> Journal of Clinical Investigation. 109 (2), 19-27 (2002).</li><li>Naji, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+activation+of+the+oxidative+stress+response+transcription+factor+SKN-1+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans+by+mitis+group+streptococci.">The activation of the oxidative stress response transcription factor SKN-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans by mitis group streptococci.</a> PLoS One. 13 (8), 0202233 (2018).</li><li>Bolm, M., Jansen, W. T., Schnabel, R., Chhatwal, G. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrogen+peroxide-mediated+killing+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans:+a+common+feature+of+different+streptococcal+species.">Hydrogen peroxide-mediated killing of Caenorhabditis elegans: a common feature of different streptococcal species.</a> Infection and Immunity. 72 (2), 1192-1194 (2004).</li><li>Sifri, C. D., Begun, J., Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+worm+has+turned--microbial+virulence+modeled+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">The worm has turned--microbial virulence modeled in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Trends in Microbiology. 13 (3), 119-127 (2005).</li><li>Irazoqui, J. E., Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=99th+Dahlem+conference+on+infection,+inflammation+and+chronic+inflammatory+disorders:+Caenorhabditis+elegans+as+a+model+to+study+tissues+involved+in+host+immunity+and+microbial+pathogenesis.">99th Dahlem conference on infection, inflammation and chronic inflammatory disorders: Caenorhabditis elegans as a model to study tissues involved in host immunity and microbial pathogenesis.</a> Clinical &amp; Experimental Immunology. 160 (1), 48-57 (2010).</li><li>Van Raamsdonk, J. M., Hekimi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+Oxygen+Species+and+Aging+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans:+Causal+or+Casual+Relationship.">Reactive Oxygen Species and Aging in Caenorhabditis elegans: Causal or Casual Relationship.</a> Antioxidants &amp; Redox Signaling. 13 (12), 1911-1953 (2010).</li><li>Tissenbaum, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+C.+elegans+for+aging+research.">Using C. elegans for aging research.</a> Invertebrate Reproduction &amp; Development. 59, 59-63 (2015).</li><li>Blackwell, T. K., Steinbaugh, M. J., Hourihan, J. M., Ewald, C. Y., Isik, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SKN-1/Nrf,+stress+responses,+and+aging+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">SKN-1/Nrf, stress responses, and aging in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Free Radical Biology &amp; Medicine. 88, 290-301 (2015).</li><li>Irazoqui, J. E., Urbach, J. M., Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolution+of+host+innate+defence:+insights+from+Caenorhabditis+elegans+and+primitive+invertebrates.">Evolution of host innate defence: insights from Caenorhabditis elegans and primitive invertebrates.</a> Nature Reviews Immunology. 10 (1), 47-58 (2010).</li><li>Park, S. K., Tedesco, P. M., Johnson, T. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+stress+and+longevity+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans+as+mediated+by+SKN-1.">Oxidative stress and longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans as mediated by SKN-1.</a> Aging Cell. 8 (3), 258-269 (2009).</li><li>An, J. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+the+Caenorhabditis+elegans+oxidative+stress+defense+protein+SKN-1+by+glycogen+synthase+kinase-3.">Regulation of the Caenorhabditis elegans oxidative stress defense protein SKN-1 by glycogen synthase kinase-3.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (45), 16275-16280 (2005).</li><li>An, J. H., Blackwell, T. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SKN-1+links+C.+elegans+mesendodermal+specification+to+a+conserved+oxidative+stress+response.">SKN-1 links C. elegans mesendodermal specification to a conserved oxidative stress response.</a> Genes &amp; Development. 17 (15), 1882-1893 (2003).</li><li>Moy, T. I., Mylonakis, E., Calderwood, S. B., Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytotoxicity+of+hydrogen+peroxide+produced+by+Enterococcus+faecium.">Cytotoxicity of hydrogen peroxide produced by Enterococcus faecium.</a> Infection and Immunity. 72 (8), 4512-4520 (2004).</li><li>Pincus, Z., Mazer, T. C., Slack, F. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autofluorescence+as+a+measure+of+senescence+in+C.+elegans:+look+to+red,+not+blue+or+green.">Autofluorescence as a measure of senescence in C. elegans: look to red, not blue or green.</a> Aging (Albany NY). 8 (5), 889-898 (2016).</li><li>Teuscher, A. C., Ewald, C. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overcoming+Autofluorescence+to+Assess+GFP+Expression+During+Normal+Physiology+and+Aging+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Overcoming Autofluorescence to Assess GFP Expression During Normal Physiology and Aging in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Bio-protocol. 8 (14), (2018).</li></ol>

The methods described can be used for other pathogenic bacteria such as Enterococcus faecium, which also produces H2O2 grown under anaerobic or microaerophilic conditions26. Typically, for most pathogenic organisms, it takes several days to weeks to complete the survival assays. However, due to the robust production of H2O2 by members of the mitis group, these assays could be completed within 5-6 h under the conditions described. This ensures th...

Mitis group streptococci are human commensals of the oropharyngeal cavity1. However, these organisms can escape this niche and cause a variety of invasive diseases2. The infections caused by these microorganisms include bacteremia, endocarditis, and orbital cellulitis2,3,4,5,6. Furthermore, they are emerging as causative agents of bloodstream infections in immunocompromised, neutropenic, and cancer patients that have undergone chemotherapy5,7,8,9.
The mechanisms underlying mitis group pathogenesis is obscure, because few virulence factors have been identified. The mitis group is known to produce H2O2, which has shown to play an important role in oral microbial communities10. More recently, several studies have highlighted a role for H2O2 as a cytotoxin that induces epithelial cell death11,12. S. pneumonia, which belongs to this group, has been shown to produce high levels of H2O2 that induces DNA damage and apoptosis in alveolar cells13. Using an acute pneumonia animal model, the same researchers demonstrated that production of H2O2 by the bacteria confers a virulence advantage. Studies on pneumococcal meningitis have also shown that pathogen-derived H2O2 acts synergistically with pneumolysin to trigger neuronal cell death14. These observations clearly establish that H2O2 produced by this group of bacteria is important for their pathogenicity.
Interestingly, it has also been shown that members of the mitis group S. mitis and S. oralis cause death of the nematode C. elegans via the production of H2O215,16. This free-living nematode has been used as a simple, genetically tractable model to study many biological processes. More recently, the worm has emerged as a model to study host-pathogen interactions17,18. In addition, several studies have highlighted the importance of studying oxidative stress using this organism19,20,21. Its short life cycle, ability to knockdown genes of interest by RNAi, and use of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fused reporters to monitor gene expression are some of the attributes that make it an attractive model system. More importantly, the pathways that regulate oxidative stress and innate immunity in the worm are highly conserved with mammals20,22.
In this protocol, it is demonstrated how to use C. elegans to elucidate the pathogenicity caused by streptococcal-derived H2O2. A modified survival assay is shown, and members of the mitis group are able to kill the worms rapidly via the production of H2O2. Using members of the mitis group, a sustained biological source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is provided, as opposed to chemical sources that induce oxidative stress in the worms. Furthermore, the bacteria are able to colonize the worms rapidly, which allows for H2O2 to be directly targeted to the intestinal cells (compared to other sources that have to cross several barriers). The assay is validated either 1) by determining the survival of the skn-1 mutant strain or 2) by knocking down skn-1 using RNAi in worms relative to the N2 wild-type and vector control treated worms. SKN-1 is an important transcription factor that regulates the oxidative stress response in C. elegans23,24,25. In addition to survival assays, a worm strain expressing a SKN-1B/C::GFP transgenic reporter is used to monitor activation of the oxidative stress response via the production of H2O2 by the mitis group.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:845px;" width="845">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Media and chemicals</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Agarose&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A9539-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Bacto peptone&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DF0118-17-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">BD Bacto Todd Hewitt Broth</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DF0492-17-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">BD BBL Sheep Blood, Defibrinated&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">B11947</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">BD Difco Agar&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DF0145-17-0</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">BD Difco LB Broth</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">DF0446-17-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Blood agar (TSA with Sheep Blood)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R01200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP510-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Carbenicillin</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP26481</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Catalase&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1345-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Cholesterol</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ICN10138201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">IPTG</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MP21021012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Magnesium sulfate</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP213-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Nystatin</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Acros organics</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">AC455500050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Potassium Phosphate Dibasic</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP363-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP362-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Sodium Azide</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S2002-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Sodium chloride&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP358-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Sodium Hydroxide</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SS266-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">8.25% Sodium Hypochlorite</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Sodium Phosphate Dibasic&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP332-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Streptomycin Sulfate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP910-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Tetracyclin</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">87128-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">(&#8722;)-Tetramisole hydrochloride</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L9756</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Yeast extract</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP1422-500&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Consumables&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">15mL Conical Sterile Polypropylene Centrifuge Tubes&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12-565-269</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Disposable Polystyrene Serological Pipettes 10mL</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">07-200-574</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Disposable Polystyrene Serological Pipettes 25mL</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">07-200-575</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Falcon Bacteriological Petri Dishes with Lid (35 x 10 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">08-757-100A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">No. 1.5&#160; 18 mm X 18 mm Cover Slips</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12-541A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Petri Dish with Clear Lid (60 x 15 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FB0875713A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Petri Dishes with Clear Lid (100X15mm)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FB0875712</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Plain Glass Microscope Slides (75 x 25 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12-544-4</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Software&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Prism</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Graphpad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Bacterial Strains</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">S. oralis ATCC 35037</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">S. mitis ATCC 49456</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">S. gordonii DL1 Challis&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">E. coli OP50</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">E. coli HT115</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Worm Strains</td>
			<td style="width:179px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">Strain</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Genotype</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Transgene</td>
			<td>Source</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">N2</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">C. elegans wild isolate</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>CGC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">EU1</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">skn-1(zu67) IV/nT1 [unc-?(n754) let-?] (IV;V)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>CGC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:381px;">LD002</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">IdIs1</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SKN-1B/C::GFP + rol-6(su1006)</td>
			<td>Keith Blackwell</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

studying oxidative stress caused by the mitis group streptococci in caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), a free-living nematode, has emerged as an attractive model to study host-pathogen interactions. The presented protocol uses this model to determine the pathogenicity caused by the mitis group streptococci via the production of H2O2. The mitis group streptococci are an emerging threat that cause many human diseases such as bacteremia, endocarditis, and orbital cellulitis. Described here is a protocol to determine the survival of these worms in response to H2O2 produced by this group of pathogens. Using the gene skn-1 encoding for an oxidative stress response transcription factor, it is shown that this model is important for identifying host genes that are essential against streptococcal infection. Furthermore, it is shown that activation of the oxidative stress response can be monitored in the presence of these pathogens using a transgenic reporter worm strain, in which SKN-1 is fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP). These assays provide the opportunity to study the oxidative stress response to H2O2 derived by a biological source as opposed to exogenously added reactive oxygen species (ROS) sources.

Members of the mitis group S. mitis, S. oralis, and S. gordonii rapidly killed the worms, as opposed to S. mutans, S. salivarius, and non-pathogenic E. coli OP50 (Figure 3A). The median survival for S. mitis, S. oralis, and S. gordonii was 300 min, 300 min, and 345 min, respectively. To determine if the killing was mediated by H2O2, catalase...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying Oxidative Stress Caused by the Mitis Group Streptococci in Caenorhabditis elegans at JoVE.com

Studying Oxidative Stress Caused by the Mitis Group Streptococci in Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is an excellent model to dissect host-pathogen interactions. Described here is a protocol to infect the worm with members of the mitis group streptococci and determine activation of the oxidative stress response against H2O2 produced by this group of organisms.

Studying Oxidative Stress Caused by the Mitis Group Streptococci in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), a free-living nematode, has emerged as an attractive model to study host-pathogen interactions. The presented ...

In this protocol we demonstrate how to use a free living method c. elegans to elucidate the pathogenicity caused by hydrogen peroxide produced via Mitis Group streptococci. The main advantage of this technique is that we can study pathogenicity and the activation of stress responses in the worm by using a sustainable biological source of reactive oxygen species as opposed to chemical sources For one liter of media add 30g of Todd Hewitt powder, 2g of yeast extract and 20g of ager to a 2 liter Erlin Myer flask.Add 970ml of deionized water to the contents of the flask and put in a stir bar. Use aluminum foil to cover the opening. Autoclave the media in the flask at a temperature of 121 degrees Celsius and pressure of 15 pounds per square inch for 30 minutes.Thereafter set the flask on a stir plate to cool down with gentle stirring. Under a laminar hood, pour the media into appropriately sized, sterile Petri dishes. Allow the media to dry for 2 hours.Thereafter store the plates at 4 degrees Celsius for up to 1 month. Before the preparation of Mitis Group streptococci, warm the THY agar plates in an incubator to 37 degrees Celsius. After that use a sterile loop to streak out desired strains of strepticocci on the places.Then put the plates in a candle jar and incubate the jar at 37 degrees Celsius overnight for around 18 hours to provide a microerophilic environment. The next day, remove the plates from the candle jar and use a sterile loop to pick isolated colonies. Inoculate 15 ml sterile conical tubes containing 2 ml of THY broth.Close the caps tight and incubate the tubes at 37 degrees Celsius under static conditions. Pre-warm THY plates in an incubator to 37 degrees Celsius add 50 microliters of solution containing 1000 units of catalase on to the THY plate. Use a sterile spreader to spread the catalase solution and allow the plates to dry on the laminar flow hood for 30 minutes.To seed the plates with the streptococcus strains, use a pipette to add 80 microliters of overnight grown cultures to the plate and use a sterile spreader to spread the bacteria completely across the agar surface. Incubate the plates at 37 degrees Celsius in a candle jar overnight. As a control, on two NGM plates, add 80 microliters of overnight grown cultures of E.coli OP-50 for seeding.Incubate the plates at 37 degrees Celsius overnight. The next day, remove the plates from the candle jar and allow the plates cool to room temperature. Using a sterile worm pick, transfer 30 L4 larvae from the NGM feeding plates to the streptococcus seeded THY plates.Incubate the plates at 25 degrees Celsius. Under a dissecting microscope, count the number of live and dead L4 larvae on each plate at several time points. Use the sterile worm pick to gently prod the worms and determine if they are dead or alive.Initially, score the worms as dead or live every 30 minutes. When worms rapidly start to die, score them at 15 minute intervals. The assay will take 5 to 6 hours to complete.After that, repeat the experiment two more times. To prepare the agarose pad, stick labtape lengthwise along two glass slides. This will determine the thickness of the agarose pads.Place a clean glass slide between the two taped slides. Dissolve agarose in deionized water to make 2 weight volume percent and heat the solution in a microwave. Use a pipette to place 100 microliters of molten agarose on the center of the clean slide.Immediately place another clean glass slide on top of the molten agarose and gently press down to make a pad. Allow the agarose to solidify and subsequently remove the top slide. The agarose pad is ready for use.Pre-warm THY plates to 37 degrees Celsius. Seed the plates with a streptococcus strains as done previously in the survival assays. Seed 3 NGM plates with E-coli OP-50 as control and incubate at 37 degrees Celsius overnight.The next day, cool the plates to room temperature. Use M9W buffer to wash L4 larvae from NGM or NGM RNAi feeding plates into 15 ml conical tubes. Spin the tubes at 450 times g, for one minute in a centrifuge.Decant the supernatant and add 10 ml of M9W to each tube. Repeat the centrifugal step three more times. Re-suspend the worms in 250 microliters of M9W and place three 5 microliter drops of the worm suspension on to a clean Petri dish lid.Under a dissecting microscope, estimate the number of worms per microliter. Using a pipette, add approximately 100 L4 larvae to each THY streptococcus seeded and NGM E.coli seeded plates. Use three plates per strain of bacteria.Incubate the plates for 2 to 3 hours at 25 degrees Celsius. Thereafter, remove the plates from the incubator. Wash them with M9W and collect the worms in 15ml conical tubes.Wash the worms three times as done previously in the centrifugal step. Remove most of the M9W by aspiration. And add 500 microliters of M9W containing 2 millimolar sodium azide or tetramisole hydrochloride to the worm pellet for anesthesia.Incubate the tube with worm pellets at room temperature for 15 minutes. Then, drop 15 microliters of the worm suspension on to a prepared agorose pad. Under a fluorescent microscope, visualize the localisation of skn-1 utilizing Fitzy and Dappy filters.Image worms at 10 times and 20 times magnifications. Score the worms based on three levels of localisation;low localisation, where no nuclear localisation is observed, medium localisation, with SKN 1 BCGFP in the anterior or posterior of the worm, and high localisation, where nuclear localisation of skn-1 BCGFP is observed in all intestinal cells. In this experiment, members of the Mitis Group rapidly killed the worms, as opposed to S.mutans, S.salivarius and non pathogenic E.coli OP-50.When catalase was supplemented to THY ager, the killing of the worms was abolished. Death of the worms was not observed on the delta spxB mutant strain compared to the wild-type and compliment strains. These data suggest that the hydrogen peroxide produced by the Mitis Group mediates killing of the worms.A significant decrease in the survival of the skn-1 knockdown worms was observed compared to the vector control treated worms. A similar killing phenotype was observed with the skn-1 mutant strain and the N2 wild-type worms. This demonstrates that skn-1 influence the survival of the worms on the Mitis Group.Localisation of skn-1 BCGFP was observed in worms exposed to the wild-type N-compliment strains and not in response to the Delta spxB mutant strain of the S cordonae. After components of the P38 map kinase pathway were knocked down, reduced localisation of skn-1 BCGFP and knockdown treated worms, relative to the vector control treated worms, was observed. By using the streptococci c.elegans system, the effects of hydrogen peroxide on endoplasmic verticular stress, mitochondrial damage, mitophogy, and tophogy can be further studied. Further more, mechanisms by which hydrogen peroxide acts as a virilescence factor to elicit immune responses by disrupting core processes of the cell can be identified.

studying-oxidative-stress-caused-mitis-group-streptococci

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Comprehensive Assessment of Germline Chemical Toxicity Using the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Identifying the reproductive toxicity of the thousands of chemicals present in our environment has been one of the most tantalizing challenges in the field of environmental health. This is due in part to the paucity of model systems that can (1) accurately recapitulate keys features of reproductive processes and (2) do so in a medium- to high-throughput fashion, without the need for a high number of vertebrate animals.
We describe here an assay in the nematode C. elegans that allows the rapid identification of germline toxicants by monitoring the induction of aneuploid embryos. By making use of a GFP reporter line, errors in chromosome segregation resulting from germline disruption are easily visualized and quantified by automated fluorescence microscopy. Thus the screening of a particular set of compounds for its toxicity can be performed in a 96- to 384-well plate format in a matter of days. Secondary analysis of positive hits can be performed to determine whether the chromosome abnormalities originated from meiotic disruption or from early embryonic chromosome segregation errors. Altogether, this assay represents a fast first-pass strategy for the rapid assessment of germline dysfunction following chemical exposure.

Comprehensive Assessment of Germline Chemical Toxicity Using the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

We describe the detailed steps of a high-throughput chemical assay in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans used to assess germline toxicity. In this assay, disruption of germline function following chemical exposure is monitored using a fluorescent reporter specific to aneuploid embryos.

Identifying the reproductive toxicity of the thousands of chemicals present in our environment has been one of the most tantalizing challenges in the ...

Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Active ERK in the C. elegans Germline

The evolutionarily conserved&#160;extracellular signal transducing RTK-RAS-ERK pathway is an important kinase-signaling cascade that controls multiple cellular and developmental processes principally via activation of ERK, the terminal kinase of the pathway. Tight regulation of ERK activity is essential for normal development and homeostasis; overly active ERK results in excessive cellular proliferation, while underactive ERK causes cell death. C. elegans is a powerful model system that has helped characterize the function and regulation of RTK-RAS-ERK signaling pathway during development. In particular, the RTK-RAS-ERK pathway is essential for C. elegans germline development, which is the focus of this method. Using antibodies specific to the active, diphosphorylated form of ERK (dpERK), the stereotypical localization pattern can be visualized within the germline. Because this pattern is both spatially and temporally controlled, the ability to reproducibly assay dpERK is useful to identify regulators of the pathway that affect dpERK signal duration and amplitude and thus germline development. Here we demonstrate how to successfully dissect, stain, and image dpERK within the C. elegans gonad. This method can be adapted for spatial localization of any signaling or structural protein in the C. elegans gonad, provided an antibody compatible with immunofluorescence is available.

Spatial and Temporal Analysis of Active ERK in the C. elegans Germline

We present an immunofluorescence&#160;imaging-based method for spatial and temporal localization of active ERK in the dissected C. elegans gonad. The protocol described here can be adapted for visualization of any signaling or structural protein in the C. elegans gonad, provided a suitable antibody reagent is available.

The evolutionarily conserved&#160;extracellular signal transducing RTK-RAS-ERK pathway is an important kinase-signaling cascade that controls multiple ...

Immobilization of Caenorhabditis elegans to Analyze Intracellular Transport in Neurons

Axonal transport and intraflagellar transport (IFT) are essential for axon and cilia morphogenesis and function. Kinesin superfamily proteins and dynein are molecular motors that regulate anterograde and retrograde transport, respectively. These motors use microtubule networks as rails. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is a powerful model organism to study axonal transport and IFT in vivo. Here, I describe a protocol to observe axonal transport and IFT in living C. elegans. Transported cargo can be visualized by tagging cargo proteins using fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP). C. elegans is transparent and GFP-tagged cargo proteins can be expressed in specific cells under cell-specific promoters. Living worms can be fixed by microbeads on 10% agarose gel without killing or anesthetizing the worms. Under these conditions, cargo movement can be directly observed in the axons and cilia of living C. elegans without dissection. This method can be applied to the observation of any cargo molecule in any cells by modifying the target proteins and/or the cells they are expressed in. Most basic proteins such as molecular motors and adaptor proteins that are involved in axonal transport and IFT are conserved in C. elegans. Compared to other model organisms, mutants can be obtained and maintained more easily in C. elegans. Combining this method with various C. elegans mutants can clarify the molecular mechanisms of axonal transport and IFT.

Immobilization of Caenorhabditis elegans to Analyze Intracellular Transport in Neurons

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is a good model to study axonal and intracellular transport. Here, I describe a protocol for in vivo recording and analysis of axonal and intraflagellar transport in C. elegans.

Axonal transport and intraflagellar transport (IFT) are essential for axon and cilia morphogenesis and function. Kinesin superfamily proteins and dynein ...

Application of RNAi and Heat-shock-induced Transcription Factor Expression to Reprogram Germ Cells to Neurons in C. elegans

Studying the cell biological processes during converting the identities of specific cell types provides important insights into mechanism that maintain and protect cellular identities. The conversion of germ cells into specific neurons in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is a powerful tool for performing genetic screens in order to dissect regulatory pathways that safeguard established cell identities. Reprogramming of germ cells to a specific type of neurons termed ASE requires transgenic animals that allow broad over-expression of the Zn-finger transcription factor (TF) CHE-1. Endogenous CHE-1 is expressed exclusively in two head neurons and is required to specify the glutamatergic ASE neurons fate, which can easily be visualized by the gcy-5prom::gfp reporter. A trans gene containing the heat-shock promoter-driven che-1 gene expression construct allows broad mis-expression of CHE-1 in the entire animal upon heat-shock treatment. The combination of RNAi against the chromatin-regulating factor LIN-53 and heat-shock-induced che-1 over-expression leads to reprogramming of germ cell into ASE neuron-like cells. We describe here the specific RNAi procedure and appropriate conditions for heat-shock treatment of transgenic animals in order to successfully induce germ cell to neuron conversion.

Application of RNAi and Heat-shock-induced Transcription Factor Expression to Reprogram Germ Cells to Neurons in C. elegans

This protocol describes how to study cellular processes during cell fate conversion in Caenorhabditis elegans in vivo. Using transgenic animals, allowing heat-shock promoter-driven overexpression of the neuron fate-inducing transcription factor CHE-1 and RNAi-mediated depletion of the chromatin-regulating factor LIN-53 germ cell to neuron reprogramming can be observed in vivo.

Studying the cell biological processes during converting the identities of specific cell types provides important insights into mechanism that maintain ...

Assessing Lysosomal Alkalinization in the Intestine of Live Caenorhabditis elegans

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is a model system that is widely used to study longevity and developmental pathways. Such studies are facilitated by the transparency of the animal, the ability to do forward and reverse genetic assays, the relative ease of generating fluorescently labeled proteins, and the use of fluorescent dyes that can either be microinjected into the early embryo or incorporated into its food (E. coli strain OP50) to label cellular organelles (e.g. 9-diethylamino-5H-benzo(a)phenoxazine-5-one and (3-{2-[(1H,1&#39;H-2,2&#39;-bipyrrol-5-yl-kappaN(1))methylidene]-2H-pyrrol-5-yl-kappaN}-N-[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl]propanamidato)(difluoro)boron). Here, we present the use of a fluorescent pH-sensitive dye that stains intestinal lysosomes, providing a visual readout of dynamic, physiological changes in lysosomal acidity in live worms. This protocol does not measure lysosomal pH, but rather aims to establish a reliable method of assessing physiological relevant variations in lysosomal acidity. cDCFDA is a cell-permeant compound that is converted to the fluorescent fluorophore 5-(and-6)-carboxy-2&#39;,7&#39;-dichlorofluorescein (cDCF) upon hydrolysis by intracellular esterases. Protonation inside lysosomes traps cDCF in these organelles, where it accumulates. Due to its low pKa of 4.8, this dye has been used as a pH sensor in yeast. Here we describe the use of cDCFDA as a food supplement to assess the acidity of intestinal lysosomes in C. elegans. This technique allows for the detection of alkalinizing lysosomes in live animals, and has a broad range of experimental applications including studies on aging, autophagy, and lysosomal biogenesis.

Assessing Lysosomal Alkalinization in the Intestine of Live Caenorhabditis elegans

A step-by-step guide to probe loss of lysosomal acidity in the intestine of C. elegans using the pH-sensitive vital dye 5(6)-carboxy-2&#39;,7&#39;-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (cDCFDA)

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is a model system that is widely used to study longevity and developmental pathways. Such studies are ...

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and chromosome dynamics. While the germline is an excellent model, the analysis is often two dimensional due to the time and labor required for three-dimensional analysis. Major readouts in such studies are the number/position of nuclei and protein distribution within the germline. Here, we present a method to perform automated analysis of the germline using confocal microscopy and computational approaches to determine the number and position of nuclei in each region of the germline. Our method also analyzes germline protein distribution that enables the three-dimensional examination of protein expression in different genetic backgrounds. Further, our study shows variations in cytoskeletal architecture in distinct regions of the germline that may accommodate specific spatial developmental requirements. Finally, our method enables automated counting of the sperm in the spermatheca of each germline. Taken together, our method enables rapid and reproducible phenotypic analysis of the C. elegans germline.

Computational Analysis of the Caenorhabditis elegans Germline to Study the Distribution of Nuclei, Proteins, and the Cytoskeleton

We present an automated method for three-dimensional reconstruction of the Caenorhabditis elegans germline. Our method determines the number and position of each nucleus within the germline and analyses germline protein distribution and cytoskeletal structure.

The Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) germline is used to study several biologically important processes including stem cell development, apoptosis, and ...

Visualizing the Node and Notochordal Plate In Gastrulating Mouse Embryos Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Whole Mount Immunofluorescence

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is the formation of the transient organizers, the node and notochordal plate, from cells that have passed through the primitive streak. The proper formation of these signaling centers is essential for the development of the body plan and techniques to visualize them are of high interest to mouse developmental biologists. The node and notochordal plate lie on the ventral surface of gastrulating mouse embryos around embryonic day (E) 7.5 of development. The node is a cup-shaped structure whose cells possess a single slender cilium each. The proper subcellular localization and rotation of the cilia in the node pit determines left-right asymmetry. The notochordal plate cells also possess single cilia albeit shorter than those of the node cells. The notochordal plate forms the notochord which acts as an important signaling organizer for somitogenesis and neural patterning. Because the cells of the node and notochordal plate are transiently present on the surface and possess cilia, they can be visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among other techniques used to visualize these structures at the cellular level is whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF) using the antibodies against the proteins that are highly expressed in the node and notochordal plate. In this report, we describe our optimized protocols to perform SEM and WMIF of the node and notochordal plate in developing mouse embryos to help in the assessment of tissue shape and cellular organization in wild-type and gastrulation mutant embryos.

The node and notochordal plate are transient signaling organizers in developing mouse embryos that can be visualized using several techniques. Here, we describe in detail how to perform two of the techniques to study their structure and morphogenesis: 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and 2) whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF).

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is ...

Cell Cycle Analysis in the C. elegans Germline with the Thymidine Analog EdU

Cell cycle analysis in eukaryotes frequently utilizes chromosome morphology, expression and/or localization of gene products required for various phases of the cell cycle, or the incorporation of nucleoside analogs. During S-phase, DNA polymerases incorporate thymidine analogs such as EdU or BrdU into chromosomal DNA, marking the cells for analysis. For C. elegans, the nucleoside analog EdU is fed to the worms during regular culture and is compatible with immunofluorescent techniques. The germline of C. elegans is a powerful model system for the studies of signaling pathways, stem cells, meiosis, and cell cycle because it is transparent, genetically facile, and meiotic prophase and cellular differentiation/gametogenesis occur in a linear assembly-like fashion. These features make EdU a great tool to study dynamic aspects of mitotically cycling cells and germline development. This protocol describes how to successfully prepare EdU bacteria, feed them to wild-type C. elegans hermaphrodites, dissect the hermaphrodite gonad, stain for EdU incorporation into DNA, stain with antibodies to detect various cell cycle and developmental markers, image the gonad and analyze the results. The protocol describes the variations in the method and analysis for the measurement of S-phase index, M-phase index, G2 duration, cell cycle duration, rate of meiotic entry, and rate of meiotic prophase progression. This method can be adapted to study the cell cycle or cell history in other tissues, stages, genetic backgrounds, and physiological conditions.

Cell Cycle Analysis in the C. elegans Germline with the Thymidine Analog EdU

An imaging-based method is described that can be used to identify S-phase and analyze cell cycle dynamics in the C. elegans hermaphrodite germline using the thymidine analog EdU. This method requires no transgenes and is compatible with immunofluorescent staining.

Cell cycle analysis in eukaryotes frequently utilizes chromosome morphology, expression and/or localization of gene products required for various phases ...

Isotropic Light-Sheet Microscopy and Automated Cell Lineage Analyses to Catalogue Caenorhabditis elegans Embryogenesis with Subcellular Resolution

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) stands out as the only organism in which the challenge of understanding the cellular origins of an entire nervous system can be observed, with single cell resolution, in vivo. Here, we present an integrated protocol for the examination of neurodevelopment in C. elegans embryos. Our protocol combines imaging, lineaging and neuroanatomical tracing of single cells in developing embryos. We achieve long-term, four-dimensional (4D) imaging of living C. elegans&#160;embryos with nearly isotropic spatial resolution through the use of Dual-view Inverted Selective Plane Illumination Microscopy (diSPIM). Nuclei and neuronal structures in the nematode embryos are imaged and isotropically fused to yield images with resolution of ~330 nm in all three dimensions. These minute-by-minute high-resolution 4D data sets are then analyzed to correlate definitive cell-lineage identities with gene expression and morphological dynamics at single-cell and subcellular levels of detail. Our protocol is structured to enable modular implementation of each of the described steps and enhance studies on embryogenesis, gene expression, or neurodevelopment.

Here, we present a combinatorial approach using high-resolution microscopy, computational tools, and single-cell labeling in living C. elegans embryos to understand single cell dynamics during neurodevelopment.

Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) stands out as the only organism in which the challenge of understanding the cellular origins of an entire nervous ...

Measuring Sperm Guidance and Motility within the Caenorhabditis elegans Hermaphrodite Reproductive Tract

Successful fertilization is fundamental to sexual reproduction, yet little is known about the mechanisms that guide sperm to oocytes within the female reproductive tract. While in vitro studies suggest that sperm of internally fertilizing animals can respond to various cues from their surroundings, the inability to visualize their behavior inside the female reproductive tract creates a challenge for understanding sperm migration and mobility in its native environment. Here, we describe a method using C. elegans that overcomes this limitation and takes advantage of their transparent epidermis. C. elegans males stained with a mitochondrial&#160; dye are mated with adult hermaphrodites, which act as modified females, and deposit fluorescently labeled sperm into the hermaphrodite uterus. The migration and motility of the labeled sperm can then be directly tracked using an epi-fluorescence microscope in a live hermaphrodite. In wild-type animals, approximately 90% of the labeled sperm crawl through the uterus and reach the fertilization site, or spermatheca. Images of the uterus can be taken 1 h after mating to assess the distribution of the sperm within the uterus and the percentage of sperm that have reached the spermatheca. Alternatively, time-lapse images can be taken immediately after mating to assess sperm speed, directional velocity and reversal frequency. This method can be combined with other genetic and molecular tools available for the C.elegans to identify novel genetic and molecular mechanisms that are important in regulating sperm guidance and motility within the female reproductive tract.

Measuring Sperm Guidance and Motility within the Caenorhabditis elegans Hermaphrodite Reproductive Tract

Sperm must successfully navigate through the oviduct to fertilize an oocyte. Here, we describe an assay for measuring sperm migration within the C. elegans hermaphrodite uterus. This assay can provide quantitative data on sperm distribution within the uterus after mating, as well as on speed, directional velocity, and reversal frequency.

Successful fertilization is fundamental to sexual reproduction, yet little is known about the mechanisms that guide sperm to oocytes within the female ...