Name: quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro
Uploaded: 2019-03-06T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantification of Hypopigmentation Activity In Vitro at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture, and Forestry (IPET) through the Agri-Bioindustry Technology Development Program, funded by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs (MAFRA) (116159-02-2-WT011) and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology for BK21 PLUS, Korea University.

1. Preparation of Medium, Compounds, and Reagents
<ol>
	<li>Prepare B16F10 growth complete medium. Supplement Dulbecco&#8217;s modified Eagle&#8217;s medium (DMEM) with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (PEST).
	<ol>
		<li>To make 500 mL of complete medium, mix 445 mL of Dulbecco&#8217;s modified Eagle&#8217;s medium (DMEM) with 50 mL of FBS and 5 mL of PEST in a 1 L sterilized glass bottle. After mixing gently, filter the medium through a 0.2-&#181;m bottle-top filter to a new sterilized glas...

<ol>
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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+protective+role+of+melanin+against+UV+damage+in+human+skin.">The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin.</a> Photochemistry and Photobiology. 84 (3), 539-549 (2008).</li><li>Galvan, I., Solano, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Melanin+chemistry+and+the+ecology+of+stress.">Melanin chemistry and the ecology of stress.</a> Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. 88 (3), 352-355 (2015).</li><li>Burger, P., Landreau, A., Azoulay, S., Michel, T., Fernandez, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Skin+whitening+cosmetics:+Feedback+and+challenges+in+the+development+of+natural+skin+lighteners.">Skin whitening cosmetics: Feedback and challenges in the development of natural skin lighteners.</a> Cosmetics. 3 (4), 36 (2016).</li><li>Cooksey, C. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+of+the+indirect+formation+of+the+catecholic+intermediate+substrate+responsible+for+the+autoactivation+kinetics+of+tyrosinase.">Evidence of the indirect formation of the catecholic intermediate substrate responsible for the autoactivation kinetics of tyrosinase.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 272 (42), 26226-26235 (1997).</li><li>Ando, H., Kondoh, H., Ichihashi, M., Hearing, V. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Approaches+to+identify+inhibitors+of+melanin+biosynthesis+via+the+quality+control+of+tyrosinase.">Approaches to identify inhibitors of melanin biosynthesis via the quality control of tyrosinase.</a> Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 127 (4), 751-761 (2007).</li><li>Gillbro, J. M., Olsson, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+melanogenesis+and+mechanisms+of+skin-lightening+agents+-+existing+and+new+approaches.">The melanogenesis and mechanisms of skin-lightening agents - existing and new approaches.</a> International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 33 (3), 210-221 (2011).</li><li>Passeron, T., Coelho, S. G., Miyamura, Y., Takahashi, K., Hearing, V. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunohistochemistry+and+in+situ+hybridization+in+the+study+of+human+skin+melanocytes.">Immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization in the study of human skin melanocytes.</a> Experimental Dermatology. 16 (3), 162-170 (2007).</li><li>Lee, J. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Momilactione+B+inhibits+protein+kinase+A+signaling+and+reduces+tyrosinase-related+proteins+1+and+2+expression+in+melanocytes.">Momilactione B inhibits protein kinase A signaling and reduces tyrosinase-related proteins 1 and 2 expression in melanocytes.</a> Biotechnology Letters. 34 (5), 805-812 (2012).</li><li>Jun, H. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dual+inhibitions+of+lemon+balm+(Melissa+officinalis)+ethanolic+extract+on+melanogenesis+in+B16-F1+murine+melanocytes:+inhibition+of+tyrosinase+activity+and+its+gene+expression.">Dual inhibitions of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) ethanolic extract on melanogenesis in B16-F1 murine melanocytes: inhibition of tyrosinase activity and its gene expression.</a> Food Science and Biotechnology. 20 (4), 1051-1059 (2011).</li><li>Jun, H. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=p-Coumaric+acid+inhibition+of+CREB+phosphorylation+reduces+cellular+melanogenesis.">p-Coumaric acid inhibition of CREB phosphorylation reduces cellular melanogenesis.</a> European Food Research and Technology. 235 (6), 1207-1211 (2012).</li><li>Jun, H. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dual+inhibition+of+&#947;-oryzanol+on+cellular+melanogenesis:+inhibition+of+tyrosinase+activity+and+reduction+of+melanogenic+gene+expression+by+a+protein+kinase+a-dependent+mechanism.">Dual inhibition of &#947;-oryzanol on cellular melanogenesis: inhibition of tyrosinase activity and reduction of melanogenic gene expression by a protein kinase a-dependent mechanism.</a> Journal of Natural Products. 75 (10), 1706-1711 (2012).</li><li>Choi, Y. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+the+isoflavone+puerarin+and+its+glycosides+on+melanogenesis+in+B16+melanocytes.">Effects of the isoflavone puerarin and its glycosides on melanogenesis in B16 melanocytes.</a> European Food Research and Technology. 231 (1), 75-83 (2010).</li><li>Cho, B. R., Jun, H. J., Thach, T. T., Wu, C., Lee, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Betaine+reduces+cellular+melanin+content+via+suppression+of+microphthalmia-associated+transcription+factor+in+B16-F1+murine+melanocytes.">Betaine reduces cellular melanin content via suppression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor in B16-F1 murine melanocytes.</a> Food Science and Biotechnology. 26 (5), 1391-1397 (2017).</li><li>Overwijk, W. W., Restifo, N. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=B16+as+a+mouse+model+for+human+melanoma.">B16 as a mouse model for human melanoma.</a> Current Protocols in Immunology. , (2001).</li><li>Virador, V. M., Kobayashi, N., Matsunaga, J., Hearing, V. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+standardized+protocol+for+assessing+regulators+of+pigmentation.">A standardized protocol for assessing regulators of pigmentation.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 270 (2), 207-219 (1999).</li><li>D'Mello, S. A. N., Finlay, G. J., Baguley, B. C., Askarian-Amiri, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+pathways+in+melanogenesis.">Signaling pathways in melanogenesis.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 17 (7), 1144 (2016).</li><li>Hou, L., Panthier, J. J., Arnheiter, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+and+transcriptional+regulation+in+the+neural+crest-derived+melanocyte+lineage:+interactions+between+KIT+and+MITF.">Signaling and transcriptional regulation in the neural crest-derived melanocyte lineage: interactions between KIT and MITF.</a> Development. 127 (24), 5379-5389 (2000).</li><li>Hedley, S. J., Gawkrodger, D. J., Weetman, A. P., MacNeil, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=&#945;-MSH+and+melanogenesis+in+normal+human+adult+melanocytes.">&#945;-MSH and melanogenesis in normal human adult melanocytes.</a> Pigment Cell Research. 11 (1), 45-56 (1998).</li><li>Hu, D. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Methodology+for+evaluation+of+melanin+content+and+production+of+pigment+cells+in+vitro.">Methodology for evaluation of melanin content and production of pigment cells in vitro.</a> Photochemistry and Photobiology. 84 (3), 645-649 (2008).</li><li>Carriel, V. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+histochemical+method+for+a+simultaneous+staining+of+melanin+and+collagen+fibers.">A novel histochemical method for a simultaneous staining of melanin and collagen fibers.</a> Journal of Histochemistry &amp; Cytochemistry. 59 (3), 270-277 (2011).</li></ol>

We presented protocols for evaluating the hypopigmentation activity of test compounds using cultured melanocytes. The representative results showed the hypopigmentation effect of arbutin, a tyrosinase inhibitor that inhibited tyrosinase activity and cellular melanin content. These methods are widely used in anti-melanogenic activity research. Using these assays, we have also successfully identified several bioactive compounds that have melanogenesis inhibitory effects on B16F10 cells in the past decade9...

Melanin plays a critical role in the physiology, pathology, and toxicology of several organs including the skin, eyes, and brain1. Major functions of melanin are photo-screening and biochemical effects. Melanin absorbs near-infrared and visible light as well as ultraviolet (UV) radiation, with increased absorption rates at shorter wavelengths of light; thus, melanin protects tissues from damage caused by visible light or UV radiation2. Melanin is an antioxidant and has an affinity for metals and other toxic chemicals; therefore, it can protect tissues from oxidative and chemical stress3. However, the excessive production of melanin causes dermatological issues.
The quantity and quality of melanin in the skin and iris are the most important determinants of the color of the iris and skin. Individuals may have different skin color preferences; some favor tanned skin, while others favor lighter skin colors. Depending on these consumer profiles, hypopigmentation cosmetics have been developed to satisfy individual markets for favored skin colors4. Accordingly, studies of hypopigmentation and anti-melanogenic activity are important both scientifically and practically.
Melanogenesis is the complex process of melanin biosynthesis through a series of enzymatic and spontaneous chemical reactions in melanocytes. One melanocyte is surrounded by approximately 36 keratinocytes and melanocytes are the melanin synthesis factories that distribute their product to neighboring keratinocytes. In skin, the melanin produced and stored in the melanosomal compartment of melanocytes is transported to neighboring keratinocytes in the epidermis via dendrites.
L-Tyrosine serves as the initial substrate for melanogenesis and the enzyme tyrosinase catalyzes two consecutive reactions that convert L-tyrosine into 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and then into dopaquinone. These reactions are the rate-limiting step in melanogenesis5,6. Accordingly, hypopigmentation activity can first be measured by assessing cellular tyrosinase activity directly. To do so, melanocyte extracts containing tyrosinase are incubated with DOPA and the dopaquinone produced in the samples can be measured by spectrophotometry at 475 nm. The values are normalized by the protein concentrations of the samples, and substances with hypopigmentation activity result in less dopaquinone formation compared with controls.
Secondly, hypopigmentation activity can be quantified by measuring melanin in cultured melanocytes directly. After treating cells with the test material, melanin is extracted under alkaline conditions and the melanin content is quantified by spectrophotometry at 400 nm. A hypopigmentation agent will result in a lower melanin content than the controls7.
Finally, the hypopigmentation activity can be quantified by Fontana-Masson melanin staining and subsequent image analysis. In Fontana-Masson staining, melanin granules reduce ammonia-silver nitrate to a visible black metallic state and the black areas of cells in microscopic images represent the amount of melanin.
A hypopigmentation agent usually gives consistent and comparable results with these three methods, which confirms that the activity of the substance is valid. Alternatively, it may be useful to measure the expression of key genes and proteins in melanogenesis in response to a test substance to examine hypopigmentation activity. In addition to tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related proteins (TRP-1) and dopachrome tautomerase (TRP-2) are critical enzymes in melanogenesis8. The transcription factor microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is a master regulator in melanogenesis and quantification of its gene/protein expression levels or a promoter activity assay can also be used to assess hypopigmentation activity.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3,4-Dihydroxy-l-phenylalanine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D9628</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium hydroxide solution</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>#320145</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arbutin</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>#10960</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SH30243.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FBS</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SH30084.03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formalin</td>
			<td>Yakuri Pure Chemicals</td>
			<td>#16223</td>
			<td>37%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gold chloride</td>
			<td>American MasterTech</td>
			<td>AHG0226</td>
			<td>0.10%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>Samchun chemical</td>
			<td>H0255</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Bio basic Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>PB0440</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>#60218</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>J.T.Baker</td>
			<td>#3817-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Duksan pure chemicals</td>
			<td>#81</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>655104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nuclear fast red</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>100121</td>
			<td>Nuclear fast red 0.1% in 5% aluminum sulfate.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin and streptomycin solution</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SV30010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silver nitrate</td>
			<td>Duksan Pure Chemicals</td>
			<td>#900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium phosphate dibasic (Na2HPO4)</td>
			<td>J.T. Baker</td>
			<td>#3817-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium phosphate monobasic (Na2HPO4)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate</td>
			<td>Duksan Pure Chemicals</td>
			<td>#2163</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane</td>
			<td>Bio Basic Canada</td>
			<td>TB0196</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Union Carbide</td>
			<td>T8787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tyrosinase from mushroom</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T3824</td>
			<td>25 KU</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro

This study presents laboratory methods for the quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro. Melanin, the major pigment in melanocytes, is synthesized in response to multiple cellular and environmental factors. Melanin protects skin cells from ultraviolet damage, but also has biophysical and biochemical functions. Excessive production or accumulation of melanin in melanocytes can cause dermatological problems, such as freckles, dark spots, melasma, and moles. Therefore, the control of melanogenesis with hypopigmentation agents is important in individuals with clinical or cosmetic needs. Melanin is primarily synthesized in the melanosomes of melanocytes in a complex biochemical process called melanogenesis, which is influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic factors, such as hormones, inflammation, age, and ultraviolet light exposure. We describe three methods to determine the hypopigmentation activity of chemicals or natural substances in melanocytes: measurement of the 1) cellular tyrosinase activity and 2) melanin content, and 3) staining and quantifying cellular melanin with image analysis.
In melanogenesis, tyrosinase catalyzes the rate-limiting step that converts L-tyrosine into 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) and then into dopaquinone. Therefore, the inhibition of tyrosinase is a primary hypopigmentation mechanism. In cultured melanocytes, tyrosinase activity can be quantified by adding L-DOPA as a substrate and measuring dopaquinone production by spectrophotometry. Melanogenesis can also be measured by quantifying the melanin content. The melanin-containing cellular fraction is extracted with NaOH and melanin is quantified spectrophotometrically. Finally, the melanin content can be quantified by image analysis following Fontana-Masson staining of melanin. Although the results of these in vitro assays may not always be reproduced in human skin, these methods are widely used in melanogenesis research, especially as the initial step to identify potential hypopigmentation activity. These methods can also be used to assess melanocyte activity, growth, and differentiation. Consistent results with the three different methods ensure the validity of the effects.

Representative results for the hypopigmentation activity of arbutin, an anti-melanogenic compound, in B16F10 melanocytes are shown below. Figure 1A shows that arbutin significantly suppressed the cellular tyrosinase activity compared with the vehicle-treated control. Similarly, the melanin content of cells stimulated with arbutin was significantly reduced compared with the controls (Figure 1B). Microscopic images of cells stained...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantification of Hypopigmentation Activity In Vitro at JoVE.com

Quantification of Hypopigmentation Activity In Vitro

We describe three experimental methods for evaluating the hypopigmentation activity of chemicals in vitro: quantification of 1) cellular tyrosinase activity and 2) melanin content, and 3) measurement of melanin by cellular melanin staining and image analysis.

This study presents laboratory methods for the quantification of hypopigmentation activity in vitro. Melanin, the major pigment in melanocytes, is ...

This method may be helpful in development of functional cosmetics and skin agent with anti-melanogenic activities. It's there is to perform and the result can be obtained quickly. In addition, this method may be useful for researchers, who want to identify or investigate the effects or the compounds or investigate the antimelanogenic or promelanogenic activities.To measure to Tyrosinase activity begin by seeding B16-F10 Melanicides at a five times 10 to the fourth cells per well of a 24 well plate concentration in complete medium for 24 hours in a cell culture incubator. The next day, replace the supernatant in each well with DMEM supplemented with freshly prepared test compound and inhibitor control or a negative control and return the plate to the incubator for another 72 hours. At the end of the treatment rinse the wells two times with 300 microliters of cold pbs per well and place the plate on ice.Next add 300 microliters of lysis buffer to each well using a cell scraper to collect the cell lysates after five minutes. Transfer the resulting cell particle suspensions to individual 1.5 milliliter micro-centrifuge tubes. And homogenize the lysates three times for two seconds at 14, 500 rpm on ice to release the intercellular Tyrosinase.Pellet the cell debris by centrifugation and transfer the supernatants to individual 1.5 milliliter centrifuge tubes on ice. Allocate 70 microliters of each supernatant to individual wells of a clear 96 well polystyrene micro plate and add 140 microliters of Tyrosinase substrate solution to each well of supernatant. Shaking the plate gentle to mix the well contents.Then incubate the plate at 37 degrees celsius for two hours. And measure to Tyrosinase activity at 475 nanometers on a microplate reader. To measure the melanin content of the cells after collecting the lysate of the treated cells as demonstrated.Collect the lysates by centrifugation and transfer the supernatants to new tubes. Add 300 microliters of one normal sodium hydroxide to each pellet for a one hour incubation at 60 degrees Celsius. Followed by centrifugation of the dissolved cell suspensions.Then transfer 200 microliters of the supernatants to each well of a 96 well plate. And measure the melanin contents on a microplate reader at a 400 nanometer wavelength. For Fontana-Masson Staining, wash the treated cells two times with 300 microliters of cold pbs and fix the cells with 200 microliters of 10%formalin for one hour at four degrees Celsius.Rinse the thick cells with distilled water and add 200 microliters of 58 to 68 degrees celsius Ammoniacal silver working solution to each well. For one hour incubation at 37 degrees Celsius or until the cells become yellow-brown in color. Rinse the stained cells with distilled water followed by two minute incubation in 0.1%gold chloride at room temperature.Rinse the gold chloride treated cells with distilled water and add 200 microliters of sodium thiosulfate solution to the cells. After two minutes rinse the cells again. And label the cells with 200 microliters of nuclear fast red per well for five minutes.Then wash the stained cells with tap water before imaging under a light microscope. For threshold analysis, open the images in image J and select image, adjust, and Color Threshold. To measure the area stained with Fontana Masson set the brightness parameter bar to zero and adjust the brightness to the point at which all of the black or brown stained cells are included.Select Analyze and Analyze Particles and check the summarize box in the Analyze Particles window then click okay to obtain a summary of the results and copy and paste the data into a spreadsheet. Arbutin treatment significantly suppresses cellular Tyrosinase activity compared to control vehicle treated cells. Similarly the melanin content of cells stimulated with Arbutin is significantly reduced compared to the controls.Although the cells are morphologically similar between treatment groups, Arbutin decreases the area of black pigment compared to the control treated cells. This method are useful for activities screening using our compound library. There are over hundreds of samples to be tested quickly.Moreover this method can also be used to investigate the mechanism involving melanogenesis. After the bioactive candidates compounds have been identified, for their testimony to the study of biological mechanisms or commercial applications.

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Biochemistry

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

Bacteria are frequently exposed to environmental changes, such as alterations in pH, temperature, redox status, light exposure or mechanical force. Many of these conditions cause protein unfolding in the cell and have detrimental impact on the survival of the organism. A group of unrelated, stress-specific molecular chaperones have been shown to play essential roles in the survival of these stress conditions. While fully folded and chaperone-inactive before stress, these proteins rapidly unfold and become chaperone-active under specific stress conditions. Once activated, these conditionally disordered chaperones bind to a large number of different aggregation-prone proteins, prevent their aggregation and either directly or indirectly facilitate protein refolding upon return to non-stress conditions. The primary approach for gaining a more detailed understanding about the mechanism of their activation and client recognition involves the purification and subsequent characterization of these proteins using in vitro chaperone assays. Follow-up in vivo stress assays are absolutely essential to independently confirm the obtained in vitro results.
This protocol describes in vitro and in vivo methods to characterize the chaperone activity of E. coli HdeB, an acid-activated chaperone. Light scattering measurements were used as a convenient read-out for HdeB&#39;s capacity to prevent acid-induced aggregation of an established model client protein, MDH, in vitro. Analytical ultracentrifugation experiments were applied to reveal complex formation between HdeB and its client protein LDH, to shed light into the fate of client proteins upon their return to non-stress conditions. Enzymatic activity assays of the client proteins were conducted to monitor the effects of HdeB on pH-induced client inactivation and reactivation. Finally, survival studies were used to monitor the influence of HdeB&#39;s chaperone function in vivo.

Detection of the pH-dependent Activity of Escherichia coli Chaperone HdeB In Vitro and In Vivo

This study describes biophysical, biochemical and molecular techniques to characterize the chaperone activity of Escherichia coli HdeB under acidic pH conditions. These methods have been successfully applied for other acid-protective chaperones such as HdeA and can be modified to work for other chaperones and stress conditions.

Bacteria are frequently exposed to environmental changes, such as alterations in pH, temperature, redox status, light exposure or mechanical force. Many ...

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. The relative levels of different tRNAs, and the ratio of aminoacylated tRNA to total tRNA, known as the charging level, are important factors in determining the accuracy and speed of translation. Therefore, the abundance and charging levels of tRNAs are important variables to measure when studying protein synthesis, for example under various stress conditions. Here, we describe a method for harvesting tRNA and directly measuring both the relative abundance and the absolute charging level of specific tRNA species in Escherichia coli. The tRNA is harvested in such a way that the labile bond between the tRNA and its amino acid is preserved. The RNA is then subjected to gel electrophoresis and Northern blotting, which results in separation of the charged and uncharged tRNAs. The levels of specific tRNAs in different samples can be compared due to the addition of spike-in cells for normalization. Prior to RNA purification, we add 5% of E. coli cells that overproduce the rare tRNAselC to each sample. The amount of the tRNA species of interest in a sample is then normalized to the amount of tRNAselC in the same sample. Addition of spike-in cells prior to RNA purification has the advantage over addition of purified spike-in RNAs that it also accounts for any differences in cell lysis efficiency between samples.

Quantification of the Abundance and Charging Levels of Transfer RNAs in Escherichia coli

Here we present a method for directly measuring transfer RNA charging levels from purified Escherichia coli RNA as well as a way to compare relative levels of transfer RNA, or any other short RNA, across different samples based on the addition of spike-in cells expressing a reference gene.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an essential part of the translational machinery in any organism. tRNAs bind and transfer amino acids to the translating ribosome. ...

Mapping Metabolism: Monitoring Lactate Dehydrogenase Activity Directly in Tissue

Mapping enzymatic activity in space and time is critical for understanding the molecular basis of cell behavior in normal tissue and disease. In situ metabolic activity assays can provide information about the spatial distribution of metabolic activity within a tissue. We provide here a detailed protocol for monitoring the activity of the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase directly in tissue samples. Lactate dehydrogenase is an important determinant of whether consumed glucose will be converted to energy via aerobic or anaerobic glycolysis. A solution containing lactate and NAD is provided to a frozen tissue section. Cells with high lactate dehydrogenase activity will convert the provided lactate to pyruvate, while simultaneously converting provided nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to NADH and a proton, which can be detected based on the reduction of nitrotetrazolium blue to formazan, which is visualized as a blue precipitate. We describe a detailed protocol for monitoring lactate dehydrogenase activity in mouse skin. Applying this protocol, we found that lactate dehydrogenase activity is high in the quiescent hair follicle stem cells within the skin. Applying the protocol to cultured mouse embryonic stem cells revealed higher staining in cultured embryonic stem cells than mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Analysis of freshly isolated mouse aorta revealed staining in smooth muscle cells perpendicular to the aorta. The methodology provided can be used to spatially map the activity of enzymes that generate a proton in frozen or fresh tissue.

We describe a protocol for mapping the spatial distribution of enzymatic activity for enzymes that generate nicotinatmide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAD(P)H) + H+ directly in tissue samples.

Mapping enzymatic activity in space and time is critical for understanding the molecular basis of cell behavior in normal tissue and disease. In situ ...

An In Vitro Assay to Detect tRNA-Isopentenyl Transferase Activity

N6-isopentenyladenosine RNA modifications are functionally diverse and highly conserved among prokaryotes and eukaryotes. One of the most highly conserved N6-isopentenyladenosine modifications occurs at the A37 position in a subset of tRNAs. This modification improves translation efficiency and fidelity by increasing the affinity of the tRNA for the ribosome. Mutation of enzymes responsible for this modification in eukaryotes are associated with several disease states, including mitochondrial dysfunction and cancer. Therefore, understanding the substrate specificity and biochemical activities of these enzymes is important for understanding of normal and pathologic eukaryotic biology. A diverse array of methods has been employed to characterize i6A modifications. Herein is described a direct approach for the detection of isopentenylation by Mod5. This method utilizes incubation of RNAs with a recombinant isopentenyl transferase, followed by RNase T1 digestion, and 1-dimensional gel electrophoresis analysis to detect i6A modifications. In addition, the potential adaptability of this protocol to characterize other RNA-modifying enzymes is discussed.

An In Vitro Assay to Detect tRNA-Isopentenyl Transferase Activity

Here, we describe a protocol for the biochemical characterization of the yeast RNA-modifying enzyme, Mod5, and discuss how this protocol could be applied to other RNA-modifying enzymes.

N6-isopentenyladenosine RNA modifications are functionally diverse and highly conserved among prokaryotes and eukaryotes. One of the most highly conserved ...

Calibration-free In Vitro Quantification of Protein Homo-oligomerization Using Commercial Instrumentation and Free, Open Source Brightness Analysis Software

Number and brightness is a calibration-free fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy (FFS) technique for detecting protein homo-oligomerization. It can be employed using a conventional confocal microscope equipped with digital detectors. A protocol for the use of the technique in vitro is shown by means of a use case where number and brightness can be seen to accurately quantify the oligomeric state of mVenus-labelled FKBP12F36V before and after the addition of the dimerizing drug AP20187. The importance of using the correct microscope acquisition parameters and the correct data preprocessing and analysis methods are discussed. In particular, the importance of the choice of photobleaching correction is stressed. This inexpensive method can be employed to study protein-protein interactions in many biological contexts.

Calibration-free In Vitro Quantification of Protein Homo-oligomerization Using Commercial Instrumentation and Free, Open Source Brightness Analysis Software

This protocol describes a calibration-free approach for quantifying protein homo-oligomerization in vitro based on fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy using commercial light scanning microscopy. The correct acquisition settings and analysis methods are shown.

Number and brightness is a calibration-free fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy (FFS) technique for detecting protein homo-oligomerization. It can be ...

Detection of Phospholipase C Activity in the Brain Homogenate from the Honeybee

The honeybee is a model organism for evaluating complex behaviors and higher brain function, such as learning, memory, and division of labor. The mushroom body (MB) is a higher brain center proposed to be the neural substrate of complex honeybee behaviors. Although previous studies identified genes and proteins that are differentially expressed in the MBs and other brain regions, the activities of the proteins in each region are not yet fully understood. To reveal the functions of these proteins in the brain, pharmacologic analysis is a feasible approach, but it is first necessary to confirm that pharmacologic manipulations indeed alter the protein activity in these brain regions.
We previously identified a higher expression of genes encoding phospholipase C (PLC) in the MBs than in other brain regions, and pharmacologically assessed the involvement of PLC in honeybee behavior. In that study, we biochemically tested two pharmacologic agents and confirmed that they decreased PLC activity in the MBs and other brain regions. Here, we present a detailed description of how to detect PLC activity in honeybee brain homogenate. In this assay system, homogenates derived from different brain regions are reacted with a synthetic fluorogenic substrate, and fluorescence resulting from PLC activity is quantified and compared between brain regions. We also describe our evaluation of the inhibitory effects of certain drugs on PLC activity using the same system. Although this system is likely affected by other endogenous fluorescence compounds and/or the absorbance of the assay components and tissues, the measurement of PLC activity using this system is safer and easier than that using the traditional assay, which requires radiolabeled substrates. The simple procedure and manipulations allow us to examine PLC activity in the brains and other tissues of honeybees involved in different social tasks.

To test the inhibitory effects of pharmacologic agents on phospholipase C (PLC) in different regions of the honeybee brain, we present a biochemical assay to measure PLC activity in those regions. This assay could be useful for comparing PLC activity among tissues, as well as among bees exhibiting different behaviors.

The honeybee is a model organism for evaluating complex behaviors and higher brain function, such as learning, memory, and division of labor. The mushroom ...

A Colorimetric Assay of Citrate Synthase Activity in Drosophila Melanogaster

Mitochondria play the most prominent roles in cellular metabolism by producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and regulating a variety of physiological processes. Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary cause of a number of metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases. Intact mitochondria are critical for their proper functioning. The enzyme citrate synthase is localized in the mitochondrial matrix and thus can be used as a quantitative enzyme marker of intact mitochondrial mass. Given that many molecules and pathways that have important functions in mitochondria are highly conserved between humans and Drosophila, and that an array of powerful genetic tools are available in Drosophila, Drosophila serves as a good model system for studying mitochondrial function. Here, we present a protocol for fast and simple measurement of citrate synthase activity in tissue homogenate from adult flies without isolating mitochondria. This protocol is also suitable for measuring citrate synthase activity in larvae, cultured cells, and mammalian tissues.

A Colorimetric Assay of Citrate Synthase Activity in Drosophila Melanogaster

We present a protocol for a colorimetric assay of citrate synthase activity for quantification of intact mitochondrial mass in Drosophila tissue homogenates.

Mitochondria play the most prominent roles in cellular metabolism by producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation and regulating a variety of ...

Synthesis of a Deuterated Standard for the Quantification of 2-Arachidonoylglycerol in Caenorhabditis elegans

This work presents a method to prepare an analytical standard to analyze 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) qualitatively and quantitatively by liquid chromatography-electrospray Ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Endocannabinoids are conserved lipid mediators that regulate multiple biological processes in a variety of organisms. In C. elegans, 2-AG has been found to possess different roles, including modulation of dauer formation and cholesterol metabolism. This report describes a method to overcome the difficulties associated with the costs and stability of deuterated standards required for 2-AG quantification. The procedure for the synthesis of the standard is simple and can be performed in any laboratory, without the need for organic synthesis expertise or special equipment. In addition, a modification of Folch&#39;s method to extract the deuterated standard from C. elegans culture is described. Finally, a quantitative and analytic method to detect 2-AG using the stable isotopically labeled analog 1-AG-d5 is described, which provides reliable results in a fast-chromatographic run. The procedure is useful for studying the multiple roles of 2-AG in C. elegans while also being applicable to other studies of metabolites in different organisms.

Synthesis of a Deuterated Standard for the Quantification of 2-Arachidonoylglycerol in Caenorhabditis elegans

This work describes a robust and straightforward method to detect and quantify the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in C. elegans. An analytical deuterated standard us prepared and used for the quantification of 2-AG by isotopic dilution and liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS).

This work presents a method to prepare an analytical standard to analyze 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) qualitatively and quantitatively by liquid ...

Quantification of Protein Interaction Network Dynamics using Multiplexed Co-Immunoprecipitation

Dynamic protein-protein interactions control cellular behavior, from motility to DNA replication to signal transduction. However, monitoring dynamic interactions among multiple proteins in a protein interaction network is technically difficult. Here, we present a protocol for Quantitative Multiplex Immunoprecipitation (QMI), which allows quantitative assessment of fold changes in protein interactions based on relative fluorescence measurements of Proteins in Shared Complexes detected by Exposed Surface epitopes (PiSCES). In QMI, protein complexes from cell lysates are immunoprecipitated onto microspheres, and then probed with a labeled antibody for a different protein in order to quantify the abundance of PiSCES. Immunoprecipitation antibodies are conjugated to different MagBead spectral regions, which allows a flow cytometer to differentiate multiple parallel immunoprecipitations and simultaneously quantify the amount of probe antibody associated with each. QMI does not require genetic tagging and can be performed using minimal biomaterial compared to other immunoprecipitation methods. QMI can be adapted for any defined group of interacting proteins, and has thus far been used to characterize signaling networks in T cells and neuronal glutamate synapses. Results have led to new hypothesis generation with potential diagnostic and therapeutic applications. This protocol includes instructions to perform QMI, from the initial antibody panel selection through to running assays and analyzing data. The initial assembly of a QMI assay involves screening antibodies to generate a panel, and empirically determining an appropriate lysis buffer. The subsequent reagent preparation includes covalently coupling immunoprecipitation antibodies to MagBeads, and biotinylating probe antibodies so they can be labeled by a streptavidin-conjugated fluorophore. To run the assay, lysate is mixed with MagBeads overnight, and then beads are divided and incubated with different probe antibodies, and then a fluorophore label, and read by flow cytometry. Two statistical tests are performed to identify PiSCES that differ significantly between experimental conditions, and results are visualized using heatmaps or node-edge diagrams.

Quantitative Multiplex Immunoprecipitation (QMI) uses flow cytometry for sensitive detection of differences in the abundance of targeted protein-protein interactions between two samples. QMI can be performed using a small amount of biomaterial, does not require genetically engineered tags, and can be adapted for any previously defined protein interaction network.

Dynamic protein-protein interactions control cellular behavior, from motility to DNA replication to signal transduction. However, monitoring dynamic ...

Quantification of Coenzyme A in Cells and Tissues

Emerging research has revealed that the cellular coenzyme A (CoA) supply can become limiting with a detrimental impact on growth, metabolism and survival. Measurement of cellular CoA is a challenge due to its relatively low abundance and the dynamic conversion of free CoA to CoA thioesters that, in turn, participate in numerous metabolic reactions. A method is described that navigates through potential pitfalls during sample preparation to yield an assay with a broad linear range of detection that is suitable for use in many biomedical laboratories.

This method describes sample preparation from cultured cells and animal tissues, extraction and derivatization of coenzyme A in the samples, followed by high pressure liquid chromatography for purification and quantification of the derivatized coenzyme A by absorbance or fluorescence detection.

Emerging research has revealed that the cellular coenzyme A (CoA) supply can become limiting with a detrimental impact on growth, metabolism and survival. ...