This work was supported in part by the US National Institutes of Health (R01 HL 111600) and the American Heart Association (12SDG9010015).

Todos os procedimentos que envolvem animais foram aprovados pelo Comitê de Cuidado e Uso da Universidade da Califórnia, Davis Animal, e aderiu ao Manual sobre Cuidados e Uso de Animais de Laboratório publicado pelo National Institutes of Health. 1. Preparação <ol><li> Prepare dois concentrados (25X) As provisões de solução modificada de Tyrode com antecedência e armazenar a 4 ° C: (1) Stock I (em mM: NaCl 3205, CaCl2 32,5, KCl 117,5, NaH 2 PO 4 29.75, MgCl2 26.25) e (2) Stock II (em mM: NaHCO 3 500). <ol><li> Recentemente preparar a solução de 2 L de Tyrode com a seguinte composição (em mM): NaCl 128,2, CaCl2 1,3, KCl 4,7, MgCl2 1,05, NaH 2 PO 4 1,19, NaHCO3 20 e glucose 11,1 por combinação de 1840 ml de água desionizada (DI) água, 80 ml da I, 80 ml de da II e 4 g de glicose. Não misture diretamente da I e da II; Adicione om 1.840 ml DI para evitar a precipitação. </li></ol></li><li> Preparar a solução estoque do desacoplador excitação-contracção blebbistatin a 10 mg / ml em di-metilsulfóxido anidro (DMSO) com antecedência e armazenar a solução estoque a 4 ° C. </li><li> Preparar soluções de estoque de corantes fluorescentes: (1) RH237 tensão-sensível corante (1 mg / ml em DMSO) e (2) indicador de baixa afinidade cálcio Fluo-5N AM (2 mg / ml em DMSO) de acordo com as recomendações do fabricante. Use os preparativos imediatamente para evitar a decomposição com a subsequente perda de capacidade de carga. </li><li> Primeiro o sistema de perfusão de Langendorff com recirculação oxigenada (95% de O 2, CO 2 5%) de solução de Tyrode. Ajustar o fluxo de O2 / CO2 para manter o pH da solução de Tyrode a 7,4 ± 0,05. Utilizar um filtro de rede em linha de nylon tecida (tamanho de poro: 11 | iM) para filtrar continuamente o perfusado. <ol><li> Primeiro o sistema de perfusão à temperatura ambiente, como loadi subsequenteng de Fluo-5N AM é realizada à temperatura ambiente. Para Fluo-5N AM carregamento, utilize um pequeno volume de recirculação perfusato (~ 150 mL). Depois de corante de carregamento, utilizar um volume maior de perfusato (1 - 2 G, ver Figura 1C). </li></ol></li><li> Ligue sistema de aquisição de dados e se preparar para a monitoração contínua de ECG e pressão de perfusão. Prepare o sistema de monitoramento de pressão-: Conecte um transdutor de pressão à linha de perfusão e monitorar a pressão de perfusão com um amplificador transbridge. Ajuste da pressão de perfusão de base a 0 mmHg, quando o coração não está ligado ao sistema de perfusão. </li><li> Alinhe as câmeras mapeamento óptico para garantir o alinhamento espacial entre o V m e SR Ca 2 + sinais. <ol><li> Primeiro, o foco das câmeras, colocando uma régua ou um objeto com texto no prato de perfusão. Vire as câmeras de mapeamento em um modo de visualização ao vivo e ajustar o foco até que o texto é nítido e claro. Adquirir um fotograma único de cada câmera. </li><li> Overlayestas imagens e ajustar a transparência da imagem de topo para que ambas as imagens são visíveis. O texto nas imagens devem se sobrepor exatamente. Se não perfeitamente alinhados, ajustar o ângulo do espelho dicróico ou a posição de cada câmara até que as duas imagens são alinhados. </li></ol></li></ol> 2. A colheita, Perfusão, e Dye-carregamento de coelho coração <ol><li> Prenda o coelho em um limitador de coelho aprovado. Profundamente anestesiar através de uma injecção intravenosa (veia marginal da orelha) de pentobarbital de sódio (50 mg / kg) e heparina (1000 UI). <ol><li> Quando o Coelho exibe falta de reflexos nociceptivos, fazer uma incisão na pele da linha média para expor o esterno e costelas. Cortar o esterno com uma tesoura cirúrgica de ponta romba do xifóide ao manubrium. Tome cuidado para não danificar o coração, enquanto a abertura do esterno. Espalhar a nervuras para expor o coração. </li><li> Excisar rapidamente todo o bloco coração-pulmão por um rápido corte de todos os navios e do tecido conjuntivo. Immediately colocar o bloco coração-pulmão em solução gelada de Tyrode. </li></ol></li><li> Localize a aorta para a perfusão retrógrada. Corte a aorta ascendente proximal apenas para os três ramos do arco aórtico. Canular a aorta para uma cânula 8 L ligado ao sistema de perfusão. Utilizar um pedaço de fio de sutura USP 0 seda para fixar a aorta para a cânula. </li><li> Dissecar cuidadosamente a traqueia, pulmões e gordura epicárdica do coração. Com uma pinça e tesouras afiadas de dissecação, localize a válvula mitral e cuidadosamente danificar ou remover um folheto para evitar o congestionamento solução no ventrículo esquerdo. </li><li> Submerge o coração na câmara de perfusão encamisado de vidro horizontalmente, com a superfície anterior do coração virado para cima para a imagiologia. Segurar a cânula a um pedaço de Sylgard com pinos em forma de U para o fundo do prato de silicone para impedir o movimento do coração durante o mapeamento (Figura 1D). Se desejado, inserir um pequeno pino de insectos no vértice do coração para STAbilização. </li><li> Posição electrocardiograma (ECG) eléctrodos no banho no lado direito e esquerdo do coração. Totalmente submergir os eléctrodos no banho e garantir que eles não estão em contacto com a superfície do coração para proporcionar uma ECG conduzida volume análogo a uma configuração de eléctrodos eu. Verifique a ligação morfologia I ECG normal. Ajustar o fluxo (25 - 35 ml / min) para assegurar que a pressão aórtica é mantida a 60 - 70 mmHg. </li><li> Desligue as luzes da sala e adicionar 0,3 - 0,6 ml da solução de blebbistatin (passo 1.2) ao perfusato (concentração final de 10 - 20 m). <ol><li> Desligue as luzes de quarto para evitar fotoinativação de blebbistatin. Se necessário, uma pequena holofote farol ou pode ser usado para fornecer a iluminação da tarefa. Nota: blebbistatin é um inibidor da ATPase da miosina e um desacoplador excitação-contração. Porque Fluo-5N carregamento exige (60 min) RT (hipotermia) condições prolongados (ver passos 2.8 - 2.10), a produção de energia cardíaca podem ser comprometidos. ºerefore, além de blebbistatin no perfusato antes de tingir o carregamento pode reduzir a demanda de energia 16 e eliminar os artefatos de movimento durante as gravações ópticas posteriores 17. </li></ol></li><li> Quando contração do coração cessou (10-15 min, verificado na gravação da pressão aórtica), mude para o pequeno volume sistema de recirculação de perfusão (ver passo 1.4.1). </li><li> Preparar e colocar solução de carga Fluo-5N AM: Adicionar 0,25 ml da solução de Fluo-5N AM (passo 1.3) para 0,25 ml quente 20% Pluronic F127. Adicionar 0,5 ml de solução de Tyrode quente para a mistura, misturar bem e adicionar ao pequeno volume do sistema de recirculação-perfusão. </li><li> Monitorar continuamente a pressão de perfusão e ECG e ajustar o fluxo, se necessário. Corante demora cerca de 1 hora à temperatura ambiente. 45 minutos após a carga ter começado, ligar o banho de água circulante para iniciar o aquecimento do sistema de perfusão e perfusado a 37 ° C. </li><li> Após 60 min de Fluo-5N AM carregamento, switch a perfusão do maior volume sistema de recirculação de perfusão (ver passo 1.4). </li><li> Dilui-se 50 ul da solução de corante sensível RH237 tensão (passo 1.3) em 1 ml de solução de Tyrode quente e adiciona-se lentamente (ao longo de 5 min ~) num proximal porta de injecção para a cânula. </li></ol> 3. Mapeamento óptica <ol><li> Durante os momentos finais de corante de carga, posicione o coração e concentrar as câmeras ópticas de mapeamento para garantir o campo apropriado de vista para o experimento. </li><li> Se desejado, colocar um eléctrodo bipolar de estimulação sobre a superfície do epicárdio do coração para a estimulação. </li><li> Colocar uma tampa de plástico ou de vidro de deslizamento sobre a superfície da câmara de perfusão para reduzir o movimento artefacto na superfície do líquido, que pode estar presente devido à recirculação da solução de perfusão. Nota: Como uma alternativa para uma lamela, use um 50 milímetros tampa de plástico limpo placa de Petri. </li><li> Concentre-se as guias de luz para iluminar uniformemente a superfície do coração e comluz xcitation. Use azul diodo emissor de luz (LED) fontes de luz e filtrar a luz com um 475-495 nm filtro passa-banda (Figura 1A). </li><li> Recolhe fluorescência emitida com um macroscópio e dois de metal-óxido-semicondutor (CMOS) complementares câmaras mapeamento óptico. Dividir a luz emitida com um espelho dicróico a 545 nm. <ol><li> -Passe longo filtrar a porção de comprimento de onda mais longo, contendo o sinal de V m, a 700 nm. Passa-banda do filtro de comprimento de onda mais curto porção, contendo o sinal de SR de Ca2 +, a partir de 502 - 534 nm (Figura 1A). Defina a frequência de aquisição de dados ópticos para 0,5-1 kHz. </li></ol></li><li> Para cada gravação óptica, primeiro iniciar o protocolo de estimulação desejado, ligar a luz de excitação, e recolher 1-4 sec de dados. Se desejar, sincronizar a protocolos de estimulação e aquisição de dados. Nota: Não é possível voltar a carregar o Fluo-5N AM, por conseguinte, a relação sinal-para-ruído (SNR) será reduse durante todo o experimento devido a tingir fuga do SR. Limitar protocolo experimental para 1-2 horas para assegurar altos valores de SNR. </li><li> Após a experiência, lavar o sistema de perfusão na sequência de água desionizada, 70% de álcool reagente, e novamente com água DI. </li><li> Filtrar cada conjunto de dados com um filtro gaussiano espacial (raio de 3 pixels) utilizando os pacotes de software comercialmente disponíveis de acordo com o protocolo do fabricante. </li><li> Se necessário, espacialmente alinhar o V m e SR de Ca2 + conjuntos de dados. Tal como no passo 1.6, sobrepor imagens de cada câmera e verifique se as estruturas anatômicas do coração (ie., Vasculatura coronária, arestas dos átrios ou ventrículos) ou outros itens no campo de visão (ou seja, de uma cânula, a estimulação do eletrodo) exatamente sobreposição. Se não, o alinhamento espacial dos conjuntos de dados é necessária. </li><li> Deslocar a imagem transparente no topo do xe y-direção até sobreposição exata é conseguido, fazendo notar o número de pixelsa imagem deve ser deslocado em cada direcção. O conjunto de dados de toda a imagem que corresponde ao topo (ou V m ou SR Ca 2+) deve então ser deslocado por o número de pixels determinados em cada direcção para assegurar o alinhamento preciso entre o V m e SR de Ca2 + conjuntos de dados. </li></ol>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

As chaves para o sucesso de Fluo-5N corante de carga são o pequeno volume de configuração de recirculação de perfusão, que permite uma elevada concentração de Fluo-5N sem a necessidade de grandes quantidades de corante, o período de tempo de carregamento (1 hr), e executar o carregamento à TA. Se o carregamento é realizado a temperaturas fisiológicas, actividade enzimática celular cliva rapidamente o tag -AM quando o corante atravessa a membrana da célula, prendendo as moléculas de corante no citosol e n?...

Dual optical mapping of intracellular Ca2+ and transmembrane potential (Vm) in the intact Langendorff-perfused heart has become a mainstay of investigations in cardiac electrophysiology, including mechanisms of arrhythmia and excitation-contraction coupling1-4. This approach has provided unprecedented knowledge into normal and abnormal electrophysiology and, importantly, into the bidirectional relationship between Vm and intracellular Ca2+. However, optical mapping of intracellular Ca2+ with high-affinity fluorescent indicators (such as Rhod-2 and Fluo-4) only reports on bulk changes in intracellular Ca2+ and is unable to distinguish whether these changes are due to transmembrane Ca2+ flux, release and reuptake into intracellular stores, or in most instances, some combination of both. Furthermore, high-affinity Ca2+ indicators have slow on-off kinetics and may not accurately report rapid changes in Ca2+ concentration5.
Each action potential triggers a rise in intracellular Ca2+, known as the intracellular Ca2+ transient (CaT). In the mammalian heart, approximately 70 &#8211; 90% of the total CaT is due to release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via opening of ryanodine receptors (RyRs)6. Within the SR, approximately half of the total Ca2+ is bound to calsequestrin (CSQ) and other intra-SR buffers7, which play an important role in SR Ca2+ homeostasis8,9. The amount of free SR Ca2+ dictates the driving force for SR Ca2+ release as well as gating of RyR, and therefore has a significant impact on the intracellular CaT. Furthermore, alterations in SR Ca2+ release or reuptake can, in turn, impact Vm via the electrogenic Na+-Ca2+ exchange, which may have arrhythmogenic consequences. Therefore, in addition to the CaT, monitoring of free SR Ca2+ can provide important insights into contractile and electrophysiological dysfunction.
Over the past several years, investigators have made significant advances in the monitoring of SR Ca2+ in isolated cardiac myocytes and from a single location on the intact heart. One such method requires rapid pulses of caffeine to open RyRs and the SR Ca2+ content is then inferred or calculated from the immediate rise in intracellular Ca2+10. Another intriguing approach uses low-affinity Ca2+ indicators, such as Fluo-5N11 or Mag-Fluo412, which bind to free SR Ca2+. These indicators have dissociation constants (Kd) in the range of 10 &#8211; 400 &#956;M and therefore exhibit minimal fluorescence in the cytosol compared to the SR lumen, where the Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]SR) is in the millimolar range. Using low-affinity Ca2+ indicators, several aspects of SR Ca2+ cycling have been investigated at the level of the isolated myocyte, including fractional SR Ca2+ release and the mechanisms of Ca2+ alternans13,14. However, in order to fully understand the heterogeneous nature of SR Ca2+ cycling in the intact heart and the role of SR Ca2+ in spatially distinct arrhythmic phenomena, methods for imaging SR Ca2+ across the epicardial surface of the intact heart are required15.
This article describes methodology for dual optical mapping of free SR Ca2+ and Vm in the intact Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart with the low-affinity Ca2+ indicator Fluo-5N. In addition to revealing SR Ca2+ characteristics spatially across the epicardial surface of the heart, this approach has the advantage of simultaneous monitoring of Vm, allowing for investigations into the bidirectional relationship between Vm and SR Ca2+.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="956">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">S271-1</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">CaCl2 (2H2O)</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">C79-500</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">S217-500</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">MgCl2 (6H2O)</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">M33-500</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">NaH2PO4 (H2O)</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">S369-500</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">NaHCO3</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">S233-3</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">D-Glucose</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">D16-1</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Component of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">95% O2 5% CO2</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">AirGas</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">carbogen</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">For oxygenation and pH of Tyrode&#39;s solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Blebbistatin</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">1760</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Excitation-contraction uncoupler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">RH237</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Biotium</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">61018</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Voltage-sensitive dye</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Fluo-5N AM</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">F-26915</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Low-affinity Ca2+ indicator; Alternative: Invitrogen F-14204; Loading must be performed at room temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Pluronic F127</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Biotium</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">59004</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">For Ca2+ indicator loading; Warm until the solutiion is clear before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">D2650</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">For dissolving blebbistatin and dyes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Filter</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">EMD Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">NY1104700</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">11um in-line filter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Pressure Transducer</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">BLPR2</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">For measuring perfusion pressure</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Transbridge Transducer Amplifier</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">SYS-TBM4M</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">For transducing/amplifing pressure signal; PowerLab may also be used with appropriate BioAmp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">PowerLab 26T</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">ADInstruments</td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td style="width:423px;">For continuous recording of pressure and ECG signals</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">THT Macroscope</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">SciMedia</td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Macroscopic optical setup. Details: 0.63x objective (NA=0.31), 2x condensing objective, resultant field of view = 3.1x3.1 cm, depth of focus = ~1.5mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">MiCam Ultima-L CMOS</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">SciMedia</td>
			<td style="width:151px;"></td>
			<td style="width:423px;">Optical mapping cameras</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="57">
			<td height="57" style="height:57px;width:216px;">Precision LED Spot Light</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Mightex</td>
			<td style="width:151px;">PLS-0470-030-15-S</td>
			<td style="width:423px;">LED light source</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optical mapping of intra-sarcoplasmic reticulum ca2+ and transmembrane potential in the langendorff-perfused rabbit heart

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ handling plays a key role in normal excitation-contraction coupling and aberrant SR Ca2+ handling is known to play a significant role in certain types of arrhythmia. Because arrhythmias are spatially distinct, emergent phenomena, they must be investigated at the tissue level. However, methods for directly probing SR Ca2+ in the intact heart remain limited. This article describes the protocol for dual optical mapping of transmembrane potential (Vm) and free intra-SR [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]SR) in the Langendorff-perfused rabbit heart. This approach takes advantage of the low-affinity Ca2+ indicator Fluo-5N, which has minimal fluorescence in the cytosol where intracellular [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]i) is relatively low but exhibits significant fluorescence in the SR lumen where [Ca2+]SR is in the millimolar range. In addition to revealing SR Ca2+ characteristics spatially across the epicardial surface of the heart, this approach has the distinct advantage of simultaneous monitoring of Vm, allowing for investigations into the bidirectional relationship between Vm and SR Ca2+ and the role of SR Ca2+ in arrhythmogenic phenomena.

A Figura 1A mostra um diagrama esquemático da configuração óptica para dual V m e SR Ca2 + mapeamento. Com esta configuração, não há separação espectral completa do V m e SR sinais de Ca2 + (Figura 1B). Um diagrama do sistema de perfusão de circuito duplo usado para Fluo-5N corante de carga está ilustrado na Figura 1C. A Figura 1D mostra a orientação horizontal do coração no prato de perfusão....

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optical Mapping of Intra-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ and Transmembrane Potential in the Langendorff-perfused Rabbit Heart at JoVE.com

Optical Mapping of Intra-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ and Transmembrane Potential in the Langendorff-perfused Rabbit Heart

Este artigo descreve o protocolo detalhado e equipamentos necessários para o mapeamento de óptica dupla de transmembrana potencial (V m) e livre intra-retículo sarcoplasmático (RS) Ca2 + no coração de coelho Langendorff-perfundidos. Este método permite a observação direta e quantificação de V m e SR Ca2 + dinâmica no coração intacto.

Mapeamento óptica de Intra-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca<sup&gt; 2+</sup&gt; E Potencial Transmembrane no Coração Langendorff-perfundidos

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ handling plays a key role in normal excitation-contraction coupling and aberrant SR Ca2+ handling is known to play a ...

optical-mapping-intra-sarcoplasmic-reticulum-ca2-transmembrane

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Optical Mapping of Intra-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ and Transmembrane Potential in the Langendorff-perfused Rabbit Heart

9.2K visualizações.  University of California Davis.  Este artigo descreve o protocolo detalhado e equipamentos necessários para o mapeamento de óptica dupla de transmembrana potencial (V m) e livre intra-retículo sarcoplasmático (RS) Ca2 + no coração de coelho Langendorff-perfundidos. Este método permite a observação direta e quantificação de V m e SR Ca2 + dinâmica no coração intacto. 

Vídeo: Optical Mapping of Intra-Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca2+ and Transmembrane Potential in the Langendorff-perfused Rabbit Heart

Proper Care and Cleaning of the Microscope

Keeping the microscope optics clean is important for high-quality imaging. Dust, fingerprints, excess immersion oil, or mounting medium on or in a microscope causes reduction in contrast and resolution. DIC is especially sensitive to contamination and scratches on the lens surfaces. This protocol details the procedure for keeping the microscope clean.

Keeping the microscope optics clean is important for high-quality imaging. Dust, fingerprints, excess immersion oil, or mounting medium on or in a microscope causes reduction in contrast and resolution. DIC is especially sensitive to contamination and scratches on the lens surfaces. This protocol details the procedure for keeping the microscope clean.

Cuidados e limpeza do microscópio

Keeping the microscope optics clean is important for high-quality imaging. Dust, fingerprints, excess immersion oil, or mounting medium on or in a ...

Biologia

Optical Mapping of Langendorff-perfused Rat Hearts

Optical mapping of the cardiac surface with voltage-sensitive fluorescent dyes has become an important tool to investigate electrical excitation in experimental models that range in scale from cell cultures to whole-organs[1, 2]. Using state-of-the-art optical imaging systems, generation and propagation of action potentials during normal cardiac rhythm or throughout initiation and maintenance of arrhythmias can be visualized almost instantly[1]. The latest commercially-available systems can provide information at exceedingly high spatiotemporal resolutions and were based on custom-built equipment initially developed to overcome the obstacles imposed by more conventional electrophysiological methods[1]. Advancements in high-resolution and high-speed complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) cameras and intensely-bright, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as well as voltage-sensitive dyes, optics, and filters have begun to make electrical signal acquisition practical for cardiovascular cell biologists who are more accustomed to working with microscopes. Although the newest generation of CMOS cameras can acquire 10,000 frames per second on a 16,384 pixel array, depending on the type of sample preparation, long-established fluorescence acquisition technologies such as photodiode arrays, laser scanning systems, and cooled charged-coupled device (CCD) cameras still have some distinct advantages with respect to dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio, and quantum efficiency[1, 3]. In the present study, Lewis rat hearts were perfused ex vivo with a crystalloid perfusate (Krebs-Henseleit solution) at 37&deg;C on a modified Langendorff apparatus. After a 20 minute stabilization period, the hearts were intermittently perfused with 11 mMol/L 2,3-butanedione monoxime to eliminate contraction-associated motion during image acquisition. For optical mapping, we loaded hearts with the fast-response potentiometric probe di-8-ANEPPS[4] (5 &mu;Mol/L) and briefly illuminated the preparation with 475&plusmn;15 nm excitation light. During a typical 2 second period of illumination, &gt;605 nm light emitted from the cardiac preparation was imaged with a high-speed CMOS camera connected to a horizontal macroscope. For this demonstration, hearts were paced at 300 beats per minute with a coaxial electrode connected to an isolated electrical stimulation unit. Simultaneous bipolar electrographic recordings were acquired and analyzed along with the voltage signals using readily-available software. In this manner, action potentials on the surface of Langendorff-perfused rat hearts can be visualized and registered with electrographic signals.

This article describes a high temporal and spatial resolution technique to optically image action potential movement on the surface of Langendorff-perfused rat hearts using a potentiometric dye (di-8-ANEPPS).

Mapeamento óptica de corações perfundidos Langendorff-Rat

Optical mapping of the cardiac surface with voltage-sensitive fluorescent dyes has become an important tool to investigate electrical excitation in ...

Semi-automated Optical Heartbeat Analysis of Small Hearts

We have developed a method for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts (Fink, et. al., 2009). Our Semi-automatic Optical Heartbeat Analysis (SOHA) uses a novel movement detection algorithm that is able to detect cardiac movements associated with individual contractile and relaxation events. The program provides a host of physiologically relevant readouts including systolic and diastolic intervals, heart rate, as well as qualitative and quantitative measures of heartbeat arrhythmicity. The program also calculates heart diameter measurements during both diastole and systole from which fractional shortening and fractional area changes are calculated. Output is provided as a digital file compatible with most spreadsheet programs. Measurements are made for every heartbeat in a record increasing the statistical power of the output. We demonstrate each of the steps where user input is required and show the application of our methodology to the analysis of heart function in all three genetically tractable heart models.

We have developed a Semi-automated Optical Heartbeat Analysis method (SOHA) for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts. We demonstrate the application of our methodology to the analysis of heart function in fruit fly and embryonic mouse hearts.

Semi-automático de análise de pulsação óptica de pequenos corações

We have developed a method for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts (Fink, et. al., 2009). Our ...

Preparation of embryos for Electron Microscopy of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube

The morphogenesis of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube has emerged as a valuable model system for studying cell migration, cell-cell adhesion and cell shape changes during embryonic development. One of the challenges faced in studying this structure is that the lumen of the heart tube, as well as the membrane features that are crucial to heart tube formation, are difficult to visualize in whole mount embryos, due to the small size of the heart tube and intra-lumenal space relative to the embryo. The use of transmission electron microscopy allows for higher magnification of these structures and gives the advantage of examining the embryos in cross section, which easily reveals the size and shape of the lumen. In this video, we detail the process for reliable fixation, embedding, and sectioning of late stage Drosophila embryos in order to visualize the heart tube lumen as well as important cellular structures including cell-cell junctions and the basement membrane.

Preparation of embryos for Electron Microscopy of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube

We describe a process for fixation, embedding, sectioning, and imaging of late stage Drosophila embryos for Trasmission Electron Microscopy of the embryonic heart tube. This technique allows for the visualization of the heart tube lumen as well as the basement membrane, which lines the lumen of the heart.

Preparação de embriões de Microscopia Eletrônica do Drosophila Tubo cardíaco embrionário

The morphogenesis of the Drosophila  embryonic heart tube has emerged as a valuable model system for studying cell migration, cell-cell adhesion and cell ...

Quantification of &gamma;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming &gamma;H2AX1. Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB2,3. This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning ~2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete &gamma;H2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. The loss of &gamma;H2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary4-8. The disappearence of &gamma;H2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C5,6. Further, removal of &gamma;H2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated7,8. Importantly, the quantitative analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in &gamma;-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes9.

Quantification of &amp;#947;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

Quantification of DNA double-strand streaks using &gamma;H2AX formation as a molecular marker has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we demonstrate the use of an immunofluorescence assay for quantification of &gamma;H2AX foci after exposure of cells to radiation.

Quantificação de γH2AX Focos em resposta à radiação ionizante

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA ...

Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &gamma;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone H2AX1,2. This phosphorylation of H2AX is mediated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PI3K) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)3. The phosphorylated form of H2AX, referred to as &gamma;H2AX, spreads to adjacent regions of chromatin from the site of the DSB, forming discrete foci, which are easily visualized by immunofluorecence microscopy3. Analysis and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci has been widely used to evaluate DSB formation and repair, particularly in response to ionizing radiation and for evaluating the efficacy of various radiation modifying compounds and cytotoxic compounds4.
Given the exquisite specificity and sensitivity of this de novo marker of DSBs, it has provided new insights into the processes of DNA damage and repair in the context of chromatin. For example, in radiation biology the central paradigm is that the nuclear DNA is the critical target with respect to radiation sensitivity. Indeed, the general consensus in the field has largely been to view chromatin as a homogeneous template for DNA damage and repair. However, with the use of &gamma;H2AX as molecular marker of DSBs, a disparity in &gamma;-irradiation-induced &gamma;H2AX foci formation in euchromatin and heterochromatin has been observed5-7. Recently, we used a panel of antibodies to either mono-, di- or tri- methylated histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me1, H3K9me2, H3K9me3) which are epigenetic imprints of constitutive heterochromatin and transcriptional silencing and lysine 4 (H3K4me1, H3K4me2, H3K4me3), which are tightly correlated actively transcribing euchromatic regions, to investigate the spatial distribution of &gamma;H2AX following ionizing radiation8. In accordance with the prevailing ideas regarding chromatin biology, our findings indicated a close correlation between &gamma;H2AX formation and active transcription9. Here we demonstrate our immunofluorescence method for detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in non-adherent cells, with a particular focus on co-localization with other epigenetic markers, image analysis and 3D-modeling.

Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &amp;#947;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

Microscopic analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci, which form following the phosphorylation of H2AX at Ser-139 in response to DNA double-strand breaks, has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we used an antibody to mono-methylated histone H3 at lysine 4 as an epigenetic marker of actively transcribing euchromatin, to evaluate the spatial distribution of radiation-induced &gamma;H2AX formation within the nucleus.

Avaliação da Distribuição Espacial da γH2AX seguintes Radiação Ionizante

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone ...

Clonogenic Assay: Adherent Cells

The clonogenic (or colony forming) assay has been established for more than 50 years; the original paper describing the technique was published in 19561. Apart from documenting the method, the initial landmark study generated the first radiation-dose response curve for X-ray irradiated mammalian (HeLa) cells in culture1. Basically, the clonogenic assay enables an assessment of the differences in reproductive viability (capacity of cells to produce progeny; i.e. a single cell to form a colony of 50 or more cells) between control untreated cells and cells that have undergone various treatments such as exposure to ionising radiation, various chemical compounds (e.g. cytotoxic agents) or in other cases genetic manipulation. The assay has become the most widely accepted technique in radiation biology and has been widely used for evaluating the radiation sensitivity of different cell lines. Further, the clonogenic assay is commonly used for monitoring the efficacy of radiation modifying compounds and for determining the effects of cytotoxic agents and other anti-cancer therapeutics on colony forming ability, in different cell lines. A typical clonogenic survival experiment using adherent cells lines involves three distinct components, 1) treatment of the cell monolayer in tissue culture flasks, 2) preparation of single cell suspensions and plating an appropriate number of cells in petri dishes and 3) fixing and staining colonies following a relevant incubation period, which could range from 1-3 weeks, depending on the cell line. Here we demonstrate the general procedure for performing the clonogenic assay with adherent cell lines with the use of an immortalized human keratinocyte cell line (FEP-1811)2. Also, our aims are to describe common features of clonogenic assays including calculation of the plating efficiency and survival fractions after exposure of cells to radiation, and to exemplify modification of radiation-response with the use of a natural antioxidant formulation.

The applicability of the clonogenic assay for evaluating reproductive viability has been established for more than 50 years. Here we demonstrate the general procedure for performing the clonogenic assay with adherent cells.

Clonogênica Ensaio: células aderentes

The clonogenic (or colony forming) assay has been established for more than 50 years; the original paper describing the technique was published in 19561. ...

Visualization of Endoplasmic Reticulum Subdomains in Cultured Cells

The lipids and proteins in eukaryotic cells are continuously exchanged between cell compartments, although these retain their distinctive composition and functions despite the intense interorganelle molecular traffic. The techniques described in this paper are powerful means of studying protein and lipid mobility and trafficking in vivo and in their physiological environment. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and fluorescence loss in photobleaching (FLIP) are widely used live-cell imaging techniques for studying intracellular trafficking through the exo-endocytic pathway, the continuity between organelles or subcompartments, the formation of protein complexes, and protein localization in lipid microdomains, all of which can be observed under physiological and pathological conditions. The limitations of these approaches are mainly due to the use of fluorescent fusion proteins, and their potential drawbacks include artifactual over-expression in cells and the possibility of differences in the folding and localization of tagged and native proteins. Finally, as the limit of resolution of optical microscopy (about 200 nm) does not allow investigation of the fine structure of the ER or the specific subcompartments that can originate in cells under stress (i.e. hypoxia, drug administration, the over-expression of transmembrane ER resident proteins) or under pathological conditions, we combine live-cell imaging of cultured transfected cells with ultrastructural analyses based on transmission electron microscopy.

We describe the imaging approaches we use to investigate the distribution and mobility of the transfected fluorescent proteins resident in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by means of the confocal imaging of living cells. We also ultrastructurally analyze the effect of their expression on the architecture of this subcellular compartment.

Visualização do retículo endoplasmático Subdomains em células cultivadas

The lipids and proteins in eukaryotic cells are continuously exchanged between cell compartments, although these retain their distinctive composition and ...

Voltage and Calcium Dual Channel Optical Mapping of Cultured HL-1 Atrial Myocyte Monolayer

Optical mapping has proven to be a valuable technique to detect cardiac electrical activity on both intact ex vivo hearts and in cultured myocyte monolayers. HL-1 cells have been widely used as a 2-Dimensional cellular model for studying diverse aspects of cardiac physiology. However, it has been a great challenge to optically map calcium (Ca) transients and action potentials simultaneously from the same field of view in a cultured HL-1 atrial cell monolayer. This is because special handling and care is required to prepare healthy cells that can be electrically captured and optically mapped. Therefore, we have developed an optimal working protocol for dual channel optical mapping. In this manuscript, we have described in detail how to perform the dual channel optical mapping experiment. This protocol is a useful tool to enhance the understanding of action potential propagation and Ca kinetics in arrhythmia development.

This article describes the technique used to perform dual channel optical mapping in cultured HL-1 atrial cell monolayers. This unique protocol allows the simultaneous visualization of both calcium (Ca) and voltage (Vm) activity in the same area for the detailed detection and analysis of electrophysiological properties of culture monolayers.

Tensão e cálcio Dual Channel Mapping Optical do Cultivadas HL-1 Atrial miócitos Monolayer

Optical mapping has proven to be a valuable technique to detect cardiac electrical activity on both intact ex vivo hearts and in cultured myocyte ...

High-resolution Optical Mapping of the Mouse Sino-atrial Node

Sino-atrial node (SAN) dysfunctions and associated complications constitute important causes of morbidity in patients with cardiac diseases. The development of novel pharmacological therapies to cure these patients relies on the thorough understanding of both normal physiology and pathophysiology of the SAN. Among the studies of cardiac pacemaking, the mouse SAN is widely used due to its feasibility for modifications in the expression of different genes that encode SAN ion channels or calcium handling proteins. Emerging evidence from electrophysiological and histological studies has also proved the representativeness and similarity of the mouse SAN structure and functions to larger mammals, including the presence of specialized conduction pathways from the SAN to the atrium and a complex pacemakers' hierarchy within the SAN. Recently, the technique of optical mapping has greatly facilitated the exploration and investigation of the origin of excitation and conduction within and from the mouse SAN, which in turn has extended the understanding of the SAN and benefited clinical treatments of SAN dysfunction associated diseases. In this manuscript, we have described in detail how to perform the optical mapping of the mouse SAN from the intact, Langendorff-perfused heart and from the isolated atrial preparation. This protocol is a useful tool to enhance the understanding of mouse SAN physiology and pathophysiology.

Here, we present a protocol for optical mapping of electrical activity from the mouse right atrium and especially the sino-atrial node, at a high spatial and temporal resolution.