The plasmid pCG001 expressing Ubp1 was kindly provided by Rohan Baker at the John Curtin School of Medical Research. This work was funded by March of Dimes Research Grant 1-FY2011, March of Dimes Basil O'Connor Starter Scholar Research Award #5-FY20 and NSF CAREER award 0746796.

1. Strain Engineering Workflow
<ol>
	<li>Insert sequences encoding (a) a membrane-localization sequence, (b) a fast-maturing fluorescent protein and (c) a protease recognition sequence N-terminal to and in frame with a protein of interest (e.g. a transcription factor). We used the membrane targeted Tsr-Venus reporter 2 and fused it to the protease recognition sequence Ubiquitin (Ub) to count the number of expressed bacteriophage &lambda; repressor CI protein molecules. Details on how we constructed the fusion protein Tsr-Venus-Ub-CI, replacing the wild-type CI coding region and incorporating the construct into the E. coli chromosome using &lambda; Red recombination 3, are described in detail in ref. 1.</li>
	<li>Verify all modifications by sequencing.</li>
	<li>Transform a plasmid encoding a protease specific to the recognition sequence used above into a strain expressing the fluorescent reporter and protein of interest in translational fusion. We used the protease Ubp1, which cleaves immediately after the C-terminal Ubiquitin residue 4.</li>
</ol>
2. Culture Cells and Prepare Sample
<ol>
	<li>Pick one E. coli colony of interest from a freshly streaked agar plate into 1 ml M9 minimal media 5 supplemented with 1X MEM amino acids and appropriate antibiotics. Incubate in a shaker at desired temperature long enough to reach OD600 &gt; 1.0 (optical density at 600 nm).</li>
	<li>Dilute the culture into 1 ml fresh M9 medium with appropriate antibiotics to OD600 = 0.02. Incubate in a shaker at appropriate temperature. Initial cellular density can be increased if needed for low-temperature growth.</li>
	<li>When the OD600 = 0.2-0.3 (at 37 &deg;C with an initial cell culture at OD600 = 0.02, this will take 3-4 hr), start preparing the agarose gel pad (step 3).</li>
	<li>The cells are ready for imaging when OD600 = 0.3-0.4.</li>
	<li>Transfer 1 ml incubated culture into a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube, centrifuge at 10,000 x g for 1 min in a benchtop microcentrifuge.</li>
	<li>Discard the supernatant and add 1 ml fresh M9 medium and resuspend the pellet gently.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 10,000 x g for 1 min.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 1.6 and 1.7. Discard the supernatant.</li>
	<li>Gently resuspend in 1 ml M9 media. Cells can be directly used for microscope imaging or diluted 10- to 100-fold to ensure low cell densities for timelapse imaging. Note that low cell densities are important for extended timelapse imaging. The imaging chamber (step 4) is sealed during the experiment. Due to exponential growth of cells, high initial cell concentrations can significantly deplete oxygen within the chamber after prolonged growth in the gel pad, reducing fluorescent protein maturation and affecting cell growth.</li>
</ol>
3. Prepare the Agarose Solution
<ol>
	<li>Weigh 10-20 mg low-melting-temperature agarose into a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Add appropriate volume M9 minimal medium without antibiotics to make a 3% agarose solution.</li>
	<li>Heat the agarose solution for 30 min at 70 &deg;C to melt, inverting the tube to ensure that the solution is completely melted and homogenous. The gel pad can be poured at this point (step 4) or the temperature can be decreased to 50 &deg;C and held for several hours for later use.</li>
</ol>
4. Prepare Gel Pad on the Chamber
<ol>
	<li>About 50 min before imaging, rinse a Microaqueduct slide with water.</li>
	<li>Rinse one cleaned cover glass (using a stringent cleaning method such as that described in 6) and Microaqueduct slide with sterile water and dry by blowing with compressed air.</li>
	<li>Place the rubber gasket on the Microaqueduct slide so that it covers the inlets and outlets on the glass side of the Microaqueduct slide (this can be modified for applications in which media is perfused through the sample). Apply 50 &mu;l agarose solution (step 3) to the center of the Microaqueduct slide.</li>
	<li>Top the agarose solution with the cleaned, dry cover glass.</li>
	<li>Let the agarose solution stand at room temperature for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Meanwhile, prepare a cell sample (step 2).</li>
	<li>Carefully peel off the cover glass from the top of gel pad. Add 1.0 &mu;l washed cell culture to the top of the gel pad. Wait for ~2 min for the culture to be absorbed by the gel pad. It is important not to wait so long that the gel pad overdries, but long enough that cells are properly adhered to the gel pad. The Ideal waiting time will vary with temperature and humidity.</li>
	<li>While waiting, dry another precleaned cover glass.</li>
	<li>Cover the sample with the new cover glass ensuring that the cover glass and Microaqueduct slide are well aligned.</li>
	<li>Assemble the temperature controlled growth chamber following the manufacturer's instructions. It can now be used for imaging on microscope (step 5).</li>
</ol>
5. Imaging and Acquisition of Timelapse Movies
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the laser and microscope following manufacturer's instructions (e.g. the laser may need to warmed up for ~0.5 hr before the experiment).</li>
	<li>Lock the assembled chamber to the stage insert on the microscope. Set the temperature of the growth chamber and the objective heater at 37 &deg;C or other desired growth temperature.</li>
	<li>If imaging above room temperature, the focus or gel pad will usually drift significantly for ~15 min after the initial temperature shift. In practice, use this time to find regions of interest and modify imaging scripts as necessary for an experiment.</li>
	<li>Find cells on the microscope and store the position of each cell after centering it within a predefined and aligned imaging region. More than one cell can be imaged in each image acquisition time window. For timelapse imaging over many generations, ensure that imaged cells are initially separated from other cells by at least a few hundred &mu;m so that other colonies will not enter the imaging region during growth.</li>
	<li>Adjust laser excitation intensity so that almost all fluorescent molecules photobleach within 6 exposures (Figure 5).</li>
	<li>Using an automated imaging script/journal, acquire timelapse data using the algorithm described in the experimental workflow in Figure 3.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Hensel, Z., Feng, H. D., Han, B., Hatem, C., Wang, J., Xiao, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stochastic+expression+dynamics+of+transcription+factor+revealed+by+single-molecule+noise+analysis.">Stochastic expression dynamics of transcription factor revealed by single-molecule noise analysis.</a> Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 19, 797-802 (2012).</li><li>Yu, J., Xiao, J., Ren, X., Lao, K., Xie, X. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+Gene+Expression+in+Live+Cells,+One+Protein+Molecule+at+a+Time.">Probing Gene Expression in Live Cells, One Protein Molecule at a Time.</a> Science. 311, 1600-1603 (2006).</li><li>Datsenko, K. A., Wanner, B. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=One-step+inactivation+of+chromosomal+genes+in+Escherichia+coli+K-12+using+PCR+products.">One-step inactivation of chromosomal genes in Escherichia coli K-12 using PCR products.</a> Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97, 6640-6645 (2000).</li><li>Tobias, J. W., Varshavsky, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cloning+and+Functional+Analysis+of+the+Ubiquitin-specific+Protease+Gene+UBP1+of+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae.">Cloning and Functional Analysis of the Ubiquitin-specific Protease Gene UBP1 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 266, 12021-12028 (1991).</li><li>Sambrook, J., Russell, D. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. , A2.2 (2001).</li><li>Xiao, J., Elf, J., Li, G., Yu, J., Xie, X. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+gene+expression+in+living+cells+at+the+single-molecule+level.">Imaging gene expression in living cells at the single-molecule level.</a> Single Molecules: a laboratory manual. , 149-169 (2007).</li><li>Nagai, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+variant+of+yellow+fluorescent+protein+with+fast+and+efficient+maturation+for+cell-biological+applications.">A variant of yellow fluorescent protein with fast and efficient maturation for cell-biological applications.</a> Nat. Biotechnol. 20, 87-90 (2002).</li><li>Stagaman, G., Forsyth, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bright-field+microscopy+of+semitransparent+objects.">Bright-field microscopy of semitransparent objects.</a> J. Opt. Soc. Am. A. 5, 648-659 (1988).</li><li>Tobias, J. W., Shrader, T. E., Rocap, G., Varshavsky, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+N-end+rule+in+bacteria.">The N-end rule in bacteria.</a> Science. 254, 1374-137 (1991).</li></ol>

We have no disclosures.

The CoTrAC method can be generalized to measure the production of other proteins where conventional N- or C-terminal fluorescent protein fusions may disrupt protein activity. The CoTrAC strategy has three unique advantages over current methods. First, co-translational fusion ensures that one molecule of the fluorescent reporter is produced for each molecule of the protein of interest, allowing accurate counting of protein production in real time. Second, the membrane-targeted reporter Tsr-Venus enables single-molecule de...

<table border="1">
<tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments (optional)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Agarose (Low melting temperature) </td>
 <td>Lonza</td>
 <td>50100</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Milli-Q H2O</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>5&times;M9 salts</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Following recipe described in 9</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>20% glucose</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MgSO4</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CaCl2</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>50&times;MEM amino acid solution</td>
 <td>Invitrogen</td>
 <td>11130-051</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Temperature-Controlled Growth Chamber 
 Stage adaptor</td>
 <td>Bioptechs</td>
 <td>FCS-2</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Objective Heater</td>
 <td>Bioptechs</td>
 <td>Model depends on microscope objective</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Microaqueduct Slide</td>
 <td>Bioptechs</td>
 <td>130119-5</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Micro cover glasses</td>
 <td>VWR</td>
 <td>40CIR-1</td>
 <td>Can be difficult to source; also available from Bioptechs</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cover glass/slide gasket</td>
 <td>Bioptechs</td>
 <td>FCS2 0.75 mm</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Fluorescence Microscope</td>
 <td>Various</td>
 <td>Example setup: Coherent Innova 308C Argon-ion laser, Olympus IX-81 microscope, Olympus PlanApo 100X NA 1.45 objective, Metamorph software</td>
 <td>Must have laser excitation, automated xyz stage, automation software capable of scripted imaging and autofocus, optics capable of resolving single fluorescent proteins </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>EM-CCD Camera</td>
 <td>Various</td>
 <td>Example setup: Andor Ixon DU-898</td>
 <td>Must have sufficiently low noise to detect single fluorescent proteins above background</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

single-molecule imaging of gene regulation in vivo using cotranslational activation by cleavage (cotrac)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method makes it possible to count the numbers of protein molecules produced in one cell during sequential, five-minute time windows. It requires a fluorescence microscope with laser excitation power density of ~0.5 to 1 kW/cm2, which is sufficiently sensitive to detect single fluorescent protein molecules in live cells. The fluorescent reporter used in this method consists of three parts: a membrane targeting sequence, a fast-maturing, yellow fluorescent protein and a protease recognition sequence. The reporter is translationally fused to the N-terminus of a protein of interest. Cells are grown on a temperature-controlled microscope stage. Every five minutes, fluorescent molecules within cells are imaged (and later counted by analyzing fluorescence images) and subsequently photobleached so that only newly translated proteins are counted in the next measurement.
Fluorescence images resulting from this method can be analyzed by detecting fluorescent spots in each image, assigning them to individual cells and then assigning cells to cell lineages. The number of proteins produced within a time window in a given cell is calculated by dividing the integrated fluorescence intensity of spots by the average intensity of single fluorescent molecules. We used this method to measure expression levels in the range of 0-45 molecules in single 5 min time windows. This method enabled us to measure noise in the expression of the &lambda; repressor CI, and has many other potential applications in systems biology.

Typical results from a CoTrAC experiment tracking the production of the &lambda; repressor CI are shown in Figures 4 and 5. In this experiment, 12 colonies were imaged at 5 min intervals. At each time point, the colony was first autofocused and centralized within the imaging region. Next, the centered/focused position was stored and a brightfield image was acquired. The stage was then translocated by ~0.5 &mu;m along the z-axis to move from the brightfield focal plane to the plane bisect...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC at JoVE.com

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC), to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method has been used to follow the stochastic expression dynamics of a transcription factor, the &lambda; repressor CI 1.

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells ...

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9.8K Views.  Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC), to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method has been used to follow the stochastic expression dynamics of a transcription factor, the λ repressor CI 1.

Video: Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC

Single-Molecule Imaging of Nuclear Transport

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the last decade. The investigation of molecular interactions with high temporal and spatial resolutions deep within cells has remained challenging due to the inherently weak signals arising from individual molecules. Recent works by Yang et al. demonstrated that narrow-field epifluorescence microscopy allows visualization of nucleocytoplasmic transport at the single molecule level. By the single molecule approach, important kinetics, such as nuclear transport time and efficiency, for signal-dependent and independent cargo molecules have been obtained. Here we described a protocol for the methodological approach with an improved spatiotemporal resolution of 0.4 ms and 12 nm. The improved resolution enabled us to capture transient active transport and passive diffusion events through the nuclear pore complexes (NPC) in semi-intact cells. We expect this method to be used in elucidating other binding and trafficking events within cells.

Single molecule microscopy approch provided novel insights into nuclear transport.

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the ...

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1. Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a wide range of cytotoxic stresses. These insults initiate signaling cascades that ultimately cause the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to the cytoplasm2. The release of cytochrome c from mitochondria is a key event that triggers the rapid activation of caspases, the key cellular proteases which ultimately execute cell death3-4.
The pathway of apoptosis is regulated at points upstream and downstream of cytochrome c release from mitochondria5. In order to study the post-mitochondrial regulation of caspase activation, many investigators have turned to direct cytoplasmic microinjection of holocytochrome c (heme-attached) protein into cells6-9. Cytochrome c is normally localized to the mitochondria where attachment of a heme group is necessary to enable it to activate apoptosis10-11. Therefore, to directly activate caspases, it is necessary to inject the holocytochrome c protein instead of its cDNA, because while the expression of cytochrome c from cDNA constructs will result in mitochondrial targeting and heme attachment, it will be sequestered from cytosolic caspases. Thus, the direct cytosolic microinjection of purified heme-attached cytochrome c protein is a useful tool to mimic mitochondrial cytochrome c release and apoptosis without the use of toxic insults which cause cellular and mitochondrial damage.
In this article, we describe a method for the microinjection of cytochrome c protein into cells, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and primary sympathetic neurons as examples. While this protocol focuses on the injection of cytochrome c for investigations of apoptosis, the techniques shown here can also be easily adapted for microinjection of other proteins of interest.

Activation of Apoptosis by Cytoplasmic Microinjection of Cytochrome c

In this protocol, we describe the direct cytoplasmic microinjection of cytochrome c protein into fibroblasts and primary sympathetic neurons. This technique allows for the introduction of cytochrome c protein into the cytoplasm of cells and mimics the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, which occurs during apoptosis.

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is a conserved and highly regulated pathway by which cells die1.  Apoptosis can be triggered when cells encounter a ...

In vitro Reconstitution of the Active T. castaneum Telomerase

Efforts to isolate the catalytic subunit of telomerase, TERT, in sufficient quantities for structural studies, have been met with limited success for more than a decade. Here, we present methods for the isolation of the recombinant Tribolium castaneum TERT (TcTERT) and the reconstitution of the active T. castaneum telomerase ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex in vitro.
Telomerase is a specialized reverse transcriptase1 that adds short DNA repeats, called telomeres, to the 3' end of linear chromosomes2 that serve to protect them from end-to-end fusion and degradation. Following DNA replication, a short segment is lost at the end of the chromosome3 and without telomerase, cells continue dividing until eventually reaching their Hayflick Limit4. Additionally, telomerase is dormant in most somatic cells5 in adults, but is active in cancer cells6 where it promotes cell immortality7.
The minimal telomerase enzyme consists of two core components: the protein subunit (TERT), which comprises the catalytic subunit of the enzyme and an integral RNA component (TER), which contains the template TERT uses to synthesize telomeres8,9. Prior to 2008, only structures for individual telomerase domains had been solved10,11. A major breakthrough in this field came from the determination of the crystal structure of the active12, catalytic subunit of T. castaneum telomerase, TcTERT1.
Here, we present methods for producing large quantities of the active, soluble TcTERT for structural and biochemical studies, and the reconstitution of the telomerase RNP complex in vitro for telomerase activity assays. An overview of the experimental methods used is shown in Figure 1.

In vitro Reconstitution of the Active T. castaneum Telomerase

Efforts to isolate the catalytic subunit of telomerase, TERT, in sufficient quantities for structural studies, have been met with limited success for more than a decade. Here, we present methods for the isolation of the recombinant Tribolium castaneum TERT (TcTERT) and the reconstitution of the active T. castaneum telomerase ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex in vitro.

Efforts to isolate the catalytic subunit of telomerase, TERT, in sufficient quantities for structural studies, have been met with limited success for more ...

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the messagefor review see 1. However, it's now widely accepted that synonymous codon usage is the primary cause of non-uniform translational elongation rates1. Synonymous codons are not used with identical frequency. A bias exists in the use of synonymous codons with some codons used more frequently than others2. Codon bias is organism as well as tissue specific2,3. Moreover, frequency of codon usage is directly proportional to the concentrations of cognate tRNAs4. Thus, a frequently used codon will have higher multitude of corresponding tRNAs, which further implies that a frequent codon will be translated faster than an infrequent one. Thus, regions on mRNA enriched in rare codons (potential pause sites) will as a rule slow down ribosome movement on the message and cause accumulation of nascent peptides of the respective sizes5-8. These pause sites can have functional impact on the protein expression, mRNA stability and protein foldingfor review see 9. Indeed, it was shown that alleviation of such pause sites can alter ribosome movement on mRNA and subsequently may affect the efficiency of co-translational (in vivo) protein folding1,7,10,11. To understand the process of protein folding in vivo, in the cell, that is ultimately coupled to the process of protein synthesis it is essential to gain comprehensive insights into the impact of codon usage/tRNA content on the movement of ribosomes along mRNA during translational elongation.
Here we describe a simple technique that can be used to locate major translation pause sites for a given mRNA translated in various cell-free systems6-8. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA. The rationale is that at low-frequency codons, the increase in the residence time of the ribosomes results in increased amounts of nascent peptides of the corresponding sizes. In vitro transcribed mRNA is used for in vitro translational reactions in the presence of radioactively labeled amino acids to allow the detection of the nascent chains. In order to isolate ribosome bound nascent polypeptide complexes the translation reaction is layered on top of 30% glycerol solution followed by centrifugation. Nascent polypeptides in polysomal pellet are further treated with ribonuclease A and resolved by SDS PAGE. This technique can be potentially used for any protein and allows analysis of ribosome movement along mRNA and the detection of the major pause sites. Additionally, this protocol can be adapted to study factors and conditions that can alter ribosome movement and thus potentially can also alter the function/conformation of the protein.

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

A technique to identify translational pause sites on mRNA is described. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA, followed by the size analysis of the nascent chains using a denaturing gel electrophoresis.

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the ...

Using SecM Arrest Sequence as a Tool to Isolate Ribosome Bound Polypeptides

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway that polypeptide chain follows during co-translational folding to achieve its functional form is still an enigma. In order to understand this process and to determine the exact conformation of the co-translational folding intermediates, it is essential to develop techniques that allow the isolation of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes to allow their further structural analysis.
SecM (secretion monitor) is a 170 amino acid E. coli protein that regulates expression of the downstream SecA (secretion driving) ATPase in the secM-secA operon6. Nakatogawa and Ito originally found that a 17 amino acid long sequence (150-FSTPVWISQAQGIRAGP-166) in the C-terminal region of the SecM protein is sufficient and necessary to cause stalling of SecM elongation at Gly165, thereby producing peptidyl-glycyl-tRNA stably bound to the ribosomal P-site7-9. More importantly, it was found that this 17 amino acid long sequence can be fused to the C-terminus of virtually any full-length and/or truncated protein thus allowing the production of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes7. Thus, when fused or inserted into the target protein, SecM stalling sequence produces arrest of the polypeptide chain elongation and generates stable RNCs both in vivo in E. coli cells and in vitro in a cell-free system. Sucrose gradient centrifugation is further utilized to isolate RNCs.
The isolated RNCs can be used to analyze structural and functional features of the co-translational folding intermediates. Recently, this technique has been successfully used to gain insights into the structure of several ribosome bound nascent chains10,11. Here we describe the isolation of bovine Gamma-B Crystallin RNCs fused to SecM and generated in an in vitro translation system.

We describe here a technique that is now routinely used to isolate stably bound ribosome nascent chain complexes (RNCs). This technique takes advantage of the discovery that a 17 amino acid long SecM "arrest sequence" can halt translation elongation in a prokaryotic (E. coli) system, when inserted into (or fused to the C-terminus) of virtually any protein.

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway ...

Analysis of Global RNA Synthesis at the Single Cell Level following Hypoxia

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a particular transcriptional program in order to mount an appropriate and coordinated cellular response. The cell possesses several oxygen sensor enzymes that require molecular oxygen as cofactor for their activity. These range from prolyl-hydroxylases to histone demethylases. The majority of studies analyzing cellular responses to hypoxia are based on cellular populations and average studies, and as such single cell analysis of hypoxic cells are seldom performed. Here we describe a method of analysis of global RNA synthesis at the single cell level in hypoxia by using Click-iT RNA imaging kits in an oxygen controlled workstation, followed by microscopy analysis and quantification.&nbsp; Using cancer cells exposed to hypoxia for different lengths of time, RNA is labeled and measured in each cell. This analysis allows the visualization of temporal and cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis following hypoxic stress.

We describe a technique for analysis of global RNA synthesis in hypoxia using imaging. Click-chemistry labeling of RNA has not previously been performed under hypoxia and allows visualization of global RNA changes at the single cell level. This approach complements the existing averaged RNA techniques, allowing direct visualization of cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis.

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a ...

Demonstration of Proteolytic Activation of the Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC) by Combining Current Measurements with Detection of Cleavage Fragments

The described methods can be used to investigate the effect of proteases on ion channels, receptors, and other plasma membrane proteins heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. In combination with site-directed mutagenesis, this approach provides a powerful tool to identify functionally relevant cleavage sites. Proteolytic activation is a characteristic feature of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). The final activating step involves cleavage of the channel&#8217;s &#947;-subunit in a critical region potentially targeted by several proteases including chymotrypsin and plasmin. To determine the stimulatory effect of these serine proteases on ENaC, the amiloride-sensitive whole-cell current (&#916;Iami) was measured twice in the same oocyte before and after exposure to the protease using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. In parallel to the electrophysiological experiments, a biotinylation approach was used to monitor the appearance of &#947;ENaC cleavage fragments at the cell surface. Using the methods described, it was demonstrated that the time course of proteolytic activation of ENaC-mediated whole-cell currents correlates with the appearance of a &#947;ENaC cleavage product at the cell surface. These results suggest a causal link between channel cleavage and channel activation. Moreover, they confirm the concept that a cleavage event in &#947;ENaC is required as a final step in proteolytic channel activation. The methods described here may well be applicable to address similar questions for other types of ion channels or membrane proteins.

Demonstration of Proteolytic Activation of the Epithelial Sodium Channel ENaC by Combining Current Measurements with Detection of Cleavage Fragments

Proteolytic activation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes can be demonstrated by combining current measurements with a biotinylation approach to investigate the appearance of ion channel cleavage products at the cell surface. Functionally important cleavage sites can be identified by using site-directed mutagenesis.

The described methods can be used to investigate the effect of proteases on ion channels, receptors, and other plasma membrane proteins heterologously ...

Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into nucleosomes. Thermodynamics of dsDNA bending has been studied by a method called cyclization which relies on DNA ligase to covalently join short sticky ends of a dsDNA. However, ligation efficiency can be affected by many factors that are not related to dsDNA looping such as the DNA structure surrounding the joined sticky ends, and ligase can also affect the apparent looping rate through mechanisms such as nonspecific binding. Here, we show how to measure dsDNA looping kinetics without ligase by detecting transient DNA loop formation by FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer). dsDNA molecules are constructed using a simple PCR-based protocol with a FRET pair and a biotin linker. The looping probability density known as the J factor is extracted from the looping rate and the annealing rate between two disconnected sticky ends. By testing two dsDNAs with different intrinsic curvatures, we show that the J factor is sensitive to the intrinsic shape of the dsDNA.

This study presents a detailed experimental procedure to measure looping dynamics of double-stranded DNA using single-molecule Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET). The protocol also describes how to extract the looping probability density called the J factor.

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into ...

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) maintain the turnover of all mature blood cell lineages. The coordination of the complex signals leading to specific HSC fates relies upon the interaction between HSCs and the intricate bone marrow microenvironment, which is still poorly understood[1-2].
We describe how by combining a newly developed specimen holder for stable animal positioning with multi-step confocal and two-photon in vivo imaging techniques, it is possible to obtain high-resolution 3D stacks containing HSPCs and their surrounding niches and to monitor them over time through multi-point time-lapse imaging. High definition imaging allows detecting ex vivo labeled hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) residing within the bone marrow. Moreover, multi-point time-lapse 3D imaging, obtained with faster acquisition settings, provides accurate information about HSPC movement and the reciprocal interactions between HSPCs and stroma cells.
Tracking of HSPCs in relation to GFP positive osteoblastic cells is shown as an exemplary application of this method. This technique can be utilized to track any appropriately labeled hematopoietic or stromal cell of interest within the mouse calvarium bone marrow space.

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

The nature of the interactions between hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and bone marrow niches is poorly understood. Custom hardware modifications and a multi-step acquisition protocol allow the use of two-photon and confocal microscopy to image ex vivo labeled HSPCs homed within bone marrow areas, tracking interactions and movement.

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ...

Parallel High Throughput Single Molecule Kinetic Assay for Site-Specific DNA Cleavage

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many cellular processes, and it is crucial to gene editing. This work describes a kinetic assay capable of measuring SSDC in many single DNA molecules simultaneously. Bead-tethered substrate DNAs, each containing a single copy of the target sequence, are prepared in a microfluidic flow channel. An external magnet applies a weak force to the paramagnetic beads. The integrity of up to 1,000 individual DNAs can be monitored by visualizing the microbeads under darkfield imaging using a wide-field, low magnification objective. Injecting of a restriction endonuclease, NdeI, initiates the cleavage reaction. Video microscopy is used to record the exact moment of each DNA cleavage by observing the frame in which the associated bead moves up and out of the focal plane of the objective. Frame-by-frame bead counting quantifies the reaction, and an exponential fit determines the reaction rate. This method allows collection of quantitative and statistically significant data on single molecule SSDC reactions in a single experiment.

A highly parallel method for measuring the site-specific cleavage of DNA at the single molecule level is described. This protocol demonstrates the technique using the restriction endonuclease NdeI. The method can easily be modified to study any process that results in site-specific DNA cleavage.

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many cellular processes, and it is crucial to gene editing. This work describes a kinetic assay capable ...