This work was supported by Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) grants MOP-130465 and PJT-156295 to SMMH. JC is partially supported by a Queen Elizabeth II Graduate Scholarship in Science and Technology from the Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities. CEM was a recipient of an Alexander Graham Bell Canada Graduate Scholarship (doctoral) from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).

The experiments described here follow animal use protocols approved by institutional entities and adhered to established national guidelines.
1. Inoculation of C57BL/6 Mice with T Ag-expressing Tumor Cells
<ol>
	<li>Grow the SV40-transformed fibrosarcoma cell line C57SV (or a similar T Ag+ adherent cell line) in Dulbecco&#8217;s modified Eagle&#8217;s medium (DMEM) with 4.5 g/L D-glucose and L-glutamine (1x) and supplemented with 1 mM sodium pyruvate and 10% heat-inactivated fetal...

<ol>
	<li>Yewdell, J. W., Bennink, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunodominance+in+major+histocompatibility+complex+class+I-restricted+T+lymphocyte+responses.">Immunodominance in major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted T lymphocyte responses.</a> Annual Review of Immunology. 17, 51-88 (1999).</li><li>Chen, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reversal+in+the+immunodominance+hierarchy+in+secondary+CD8++T+cell+responses+to+influenza+A+virus:+roles+for+cross-presentation+and+lysis-independent+immunodomination.">Reversal in the immunodominance hierarchy in secondary CD8+ T cell responses to influenza A virus: roles for cross-presentation and lysis-independent immunodomination.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 173 (8), 5021-5027 (2004).</li><li>Otahal, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inefficient+cross-presentation+limits+the+CD8++T+cell+response+to+a+subdominant+tumor+antigen+epitope.">Inefficient cross-presentation limits the CD8+ T cell response to a subdominant tumor antigen epitope.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 175 (2), 700-712 (2005).</li><li>Lauron, E. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cross-priming+induces+immunodomination+in+the+presence+of+viral+MHC+class+I+inhibition.">Cross-priming induces immunodomination in the presence of viral MHC class I inhibition.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 14 (2), e1006883 (2018).</li><li>Crowe, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+antigen+presentation+regulates+the+changing+patterns+of+CD8++T+cell+immunodominance+in+primary+and+secondary+influenza+virus+infections.">Differential antigen presentation regulates the changing patterns of CD8+ T cell immunodominance in primary and secondary influenza virus infections.</a> The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 198 (3), 399-410 (2003).</li><li>Probst, H. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunodominance+of+an+antiviral+cytotoxic+T+cell+response+is+shaped+by+the+kinetics+of+viral+protein+expression.">Immunodominance of an antiviral cytotoxic T cell response is shaped by the kinetics of viral protein expression.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 171 (10), 5415-5422 (2003).</li><li>Gileadi, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+an+immunodominant+CTL+epitope+is+affected+by+proteasome+subunit+composition+and+stability+of+the+antigenic+protein.">Generation of an immunodominant CTL epitope is affected by proteasome subunit composition and stability of the antigenic protein.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 163 (11), 6045-6052 (1999).</li><li>Zanker, D., Waithman, J., Yewdell, J. W., Chen, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mixed+proteasomes+function+to+increase+viral+peptide+diversity+and+broaden+antiviral+CD8++T+cell+responses.">Mixed proteasomes function to increase viral peptide diversity and broaden antiviral CD8+ T cell responses.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 191 (1), 52-59 (2013).</li><li>Deng, Y., Yewdell, J. W., Eisenlohr, L. C., Bennink, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MHC+affinity,+peptide+liberation,+T+cell+repertoire,+and+immunodominance+all+contribute+to+the+paucity+of+MHC+class+I-restricted+peptides+recognized+by+antiviral+CTL.">MHC affinity, peptide liberation, T cell repertoire, and immunodominance all contribute to the paucity of MHC class I-restricted peptides recognized by antiviral CTL.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 158 (4), 1507-1515 (1997).</li><li>Chen, W., Khilko, S., Fecondo, J., Margulies, D. H., McCluskey, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determinant+selection+of+major+histocompatibility+complex+class+I-restricted+antigenic+peptides+is+explained+by+class+I-peptide+affinity+and+is+strongly+influenced+by+nondominant+anchor+residues.">Determinant selection of major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted antigenic peptides is explained by class I-peptide affinity and is strongly influenced by nondominant anchor residues.</a> The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 180 (4), 1471-1483 (1994).</li><li>Kotturi, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Naive+precursor+frequencies+and+MHC+binding+rather+than+the+degree+of+epitope+diversity+shape+CD8++T+cell+immunodominance.">Naive precursor frequencies and MHC binding rather than the degree of epitope diversity shape CD8+ T cell immunodominance.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 181 (3), 2124-2133 (2008).</li><li>Haeryfar, S. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Terminal+deoxynucleotidyl+transferase+establishes+and+broadens+antiviral+CD8++T+cell+immunodominance+hierarchies.">Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase establishes and broadens antiviral CD8+ T cell immunodominance hierarchies.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 181 (1), 649-659 (2008).</li><li>Leon-Ponte, M., Kasprzyski, T., Mannik, L. A., Haeryfar, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Altered+immunodominance+hierarchies+of+influenza+A+virus-specific+H-2(b)-restricted+CD8++T+cells+in+the+absence+of+terminal+deoxynucleotidyl+transferase.">Altered immunodominance hierarchies of influenza A virus-specific H-2(b)-restricted CD8+ T cells in the absence of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase.</a> Immunological Investigations. 37 (7), 714-725 (2008).</li><li>Kedl, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=T+cells+compete+for+access+to+antigen-bearing+antigen-presenting+cells.">T cells compete for access to antigen-bearing antigen-presenting cells.</a> The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 192 (8), 1105-1113 (2000).</li><li>Kastenmuller, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cross-competition+of+CD8++T+cells+shapes+the+immunodominance+hierarchy+during+boost+vaccination.">Cross-competition of CD8+ T cells shapes the immunodominance hierarchy during boost vaccination.</a> The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (9), 2187-2198 (2007).</li><li>Memarnejadian, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PD-1+Blockade+Promotes+Epitope+Spreading+in+Anticancer+CD8(+)+T+Cell+Responses+by+Preventing+Fratricidal+Death+of+Subdominant+Clones+To+Relieve+Immunodomination.">PD-1 Blockade Promotes Epitope Spreading in Anticancer CD8(+) T Cell Responses by Preventing Fratricidal Death of Subdominant Clones To Relieve Immunodomination.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 199 (9), 3348-3359 (2017).</li><li>Haeryfar, S. M., DiPaolo, R. J., Tscharke, D. C., Bennink, J. R., Yewdell, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulatory+T+cells+suppress+CD8++T+cell+responses+induced+by+direct+priming+and+cross-priming+and+moderate+immunodominance+disparities.">Regulatory T cells suppress CD8+ T cell responses induced by direct priming and cross-priming and moderate immunodominance disparities.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 174 (6), 3344-3351 (2005).</li><li>Rytelewski, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Suppression+of+immunodominant+antitumor+and+antiviral+CD8++T+cell+responses+by+indoleamine+2,3-dioxygenase.">Suppression of immunodominant antitumor and antiviral CD8+ T cell responses by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase.</a> PLoS One. 9 (2), e90439 (2014).</li><li>Maleki Vareki, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+regulation+of+simultaneous+antitumor+and+alloreactive+CD8(+)+T-cell+responses+in+the+same+host+by+rapamycin.">Differential regulation of simultaneous antitumor and alloreactive CD8(+) T-cell responses in the same host by rapamycin.</a> American Journal of Transplantation. 12 (1), 233-239 (2012).</li><li>Irvine, K., Bennink, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Factors+influencing+immunodominance+hierarchies+in+TCD8++-mediated+antiviral+responses.">Factors influencing immunodominance hierarchies in TCD8+ -mediated antiviral responses.</a> Expert Review of Clinical Immunology. 2 (1), 135-147 (2006).</li><li>Grossmann, M. E., Davila, T., Celis, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Avoiding+tolerance+against+prostatic+antigens+with+subdominant+peptide+epitopes.">Avoiding tolerance against prostatic antigens with subdominant peptide epitopes.</a> Journal of Immunotherapy. 24 (3), 237-241 (2001).</li><li>Schreiber, H., Wu, T. H., Nachman, J., Kast, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunodominance+and+tumor+escape.">Immunodominance and tumor escape.</a> Seminars in Cancer Biology. 12 (1), 25-31 (2002).</li><li>Mylin, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitation+of+CD8(+)+T-lymphocyte+responses+to+multiple+epitopes+from+simian+virus+40+(SV40)+large+T+antigen+in+C57BL/6+mice+immunized+with+SV40,+SV40+T-antigen-transformed+cells,+or+vaccinia+virus+recombinants+expressing+full-length+T+antigen+or+epitope+minigenes.">Quantitation of CD8(+) T-lymphocyte responses to multiple epitopes from simian virus 40 (SV40) large T antigen in C57BL/6 mice immunized with SV40, SV40 T-antigen-transformed cells, or vaccinia virus recombinants expressing full-length T antigen or epitope minigenes.</a> Journal of Virology. 74 (15), 6922-6934 (2000).</li><li>Fu, T. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+endoplasmic+reticulum-targeting+signal+sequence+enhances+the+immunogenicity+of+an+immunorecessive+simian+virus+40+large+T+antigen+cytotoxic+T-lymphocyte+epitope.">An endoplasmic reticulum-targeting signal sequence enhances the immunogenicity of an immunorecessive simian virus 40 large T antigen cytotoxic T-lymphocyte epitope.</a> Journal of Virology. 72 (2), 1469-1481 (1998).</li><li>Chen, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cross-priming+of+CD8++T+cells+by+viral+and+tumor+antigens+is+a+robust+phenomenon.">Cross-priming of CD8+ T cells by viral and tumor antigens is a robust phenomenon.</a> European Journal of Immunology. 34 (1), 194-199 (2004).</li><li>Memarnejadian, A., Meilleur, C. E., Mazzuca, D. M., Welch, I. D., Haeryfar, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+Alloantibody-Mediated+Cytotoxicity+In+Vivo.">Quantification of Alloantibody-Mediated Cytotoxicity In Vivo.</a> Transplantation. 100 (5), 1041-1051 (2016).</li><li>Aichele, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peptide+antigen+treatment+of+naive+and+virus-immune+mice:+antigen-specific+tolerance+versus+immunopathology.">Peptide antigen treatment of naive and virus-immune mice: antigen-specific tolerance versus immunopathology.</a> Immunity. 6 (5), 519-529 (1997).</li><li>Oehen, S., Brduscha-Riem, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differentiation+of+naive+CTL+to+effector+and+memory+CTL:+correlation+of+effector+function+with+phenotype+and+cell+division.">Differentiation of naive CTL to effector and memory CTL: correlation of effector function with phenotype and cell division.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 161 (10), 5338-5346 (1998).</li><li>Coles, R. M., Mueller, S. N., Heath, W. R., Carbone, F. R., Brooks, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progression+of+armed+CTL+from+draining+lymph+node+to+spleen+shortly+after+localized+infection+with+herpes+simplex+virus+1.">Progression of armed CTL from draining lymph node to spleen shortly after localized infection with herpes simplex virus 1.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 168 (2), 834-838 (2002).</li><li>Barber, D. L., Wherry, E. J., Ahmed, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cutting+edge:+rapid+in+vivo+killing+by+memory+CD8+T+cells.">Cutting edge: rapid in vivo killing by memory CD8 T cells.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 171 (1), 27-31 (2003).</li><li>Meilleur, C. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+superantigens+expand+and+activate,+rather+than+delete+or+incapacitate,+preexisting+antigen-specific+memory+CD8++T+cells.">Bacterial superantigens expand and activate, rather than delete or incapacitate, preexisting antigen-specific memory CD8+ T cells.</a> The Journal of Infectious Diseases. , (2018).</li><li>Goldszmid, R. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dendritic+cells+charged+with+apoptotic+tumor+cells+induce+long-lived+protective+CD4++and+CD8++T+cell+immunity+against+B16+melanoma.">Dendritic cells charged with apoptotic tumor cells induce long-lived protective CD4+ and CD8+ T cell immunity against B16 melanoma.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 171 (11), 5940-5947 (2003).</li><li>Oberg, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Loss+or+mismatch+of+MHC+class+I+is+sufficient+to+trigger+NK+cell-mediated+rejection+of+resting+lymphocytes+in+vivo+-+role+of+KARAP/DAP12-dependent+and+-independent+pathways.">Loss or mismatch of MHC class I is sufficient to trigger NK cell-mediated rejection of resting lymphocytes in vivo - role of KARAP/DAP12-dependent and -independent pathways.</a> European Journal of Immunology. 34 (6), 1646-1653 (2004).</li><li>Wingender, G., Krebs, P., Beutler, B., Kronenberg, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antigen-specific+cytotoxicity+by+invariant+NKT+cells+in+vivo+is+CD95/CD178-dependent+and+is+correlated+with+antigenic+potency.">Antigen-specific cytotoxicity by invariant NKT cells in vivo is CD95/CD178-dependent and is correlated with antigenic potency.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 185 (5), 2721-2729 (2010).</li><li>Brinster, R. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transgenic+mice+harboring+SV40+T-antigen+genes+develop+characteristic+brain+tumors.">Transgenic mice harboring SV40 T-antigen genes develop characteristic brain tumors.</a> Cell. 37 (2), 367-379 (1984).</li><li>Tatum, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CD8++T+cells+targeting+a+single+immunodominant+epitope+are+sufficient+for+elimination+of+established+SV40+T+antigen-induced+brain+tumors.">CD8+ T cells targeting a single immunodominant epitope are sufficient for elimination of established SV40 T antigen-induced brain tumors.</a> The Journal of Immunology. 181 (6), 4406-4417 (2008).</li><li>Schell, T. D., Tevethia, S. 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CFSE-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays offer several advantages over traditional killing assays such as radioactive chromium (51Cr) release and colorimetric lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays. First, they permit the monitoring of CTL function within an architecturally intact secondary lymphoid organ.
Second, the specific killing of target cells in in vivo cytotoxicity assays reflects the absolute number of Ag-specific TCD8, which is usually, but not always, a func...

Conventional CD8+ T cells (TCD8) play important parts in anticancer immune surveillance. They primarily function in the capacity of cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTLs) that recognize tumor-specific or -associated peptide antigens (Ags) displayed within the closed cleft of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. Fully armed CTLs utilize their cytotoxic arsenal to destroy malignant cells. Anticancer TCD8 can be detected in the circulation or even inside primary and metastatic masses of many cancer patients and tumor-bearing animals. However, they are often anergic or exhausted and fail to eradicate cancer. Therefore, many immunotherapeutic modalities are designed to increase anticancer TCD8 frequencies and to restore and boost their functions.
Tumor proteins harbor many peptides, some of which can be immunogenic and potentially immunoprotective. However, quantifiable TCD8 responses are elicited with varying magnitudes against few peptides only. This creates an &#8220;immunodominance hierarchy&#8221; among TCD8 clones1. Accordingly, immunodominant (ID) TCD8 occupy prominent hierarchical ranks, which is commonly judged by their abundance. In contrast, TCD8 cells whose T cell receptor (TCR) is specific for subdominant (SD) epitopes occur in lower frequencies. We and others have identified some of the factors that dictate or shape immunodominance in TCD8 responses. These include, among others, the mode of Ag presentation to na&#239;ve TCD8 (i.e., direct presentation, cross-presentation, cross-dressing)2,3,4, the type of Ag-presenting cells (APCs) participating in TCD8 activation5, the abundance and stability of protein Ags6,7 and the efficiency and kinetics of their degradation by proteasomes7,8, the relative selectivity of transporter associated with Ag processing (TAP) for peptides9, the affinity of liberated peptides for MHC I molecules9,10, the presence, precursor frequencies and TCR diversity of cognate TCD8 in T cell pools11,12,13, cross-competition among T cells for access to APCs14,15, and the fratricidal capacity of TCD8 clones16. In addition, TCD8 immunodominance is subjected to immunoregulatory mechanisms mediated by several suppressor cell types such as naturally occurring regulatory T (nTreg) cells17, the cell surface co-inhibitory molecule programmed death-1 (PD-1)16, and certain intracellular enzymes such as indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)18 and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)19. It is important to note, however, that the above factors do not always fully account for immunodominance.
Apart from the basic biology of TCD8 immunodominance, the examination of this intriguing phenomenon has important implications in cancer immunology and immunotherapy. First, an ID status does not necessarily confer upon a given TCD8 clone the ability to prevent tumor initiation or progression20. Whether and how ID and SD TCD8 contribute to antitumor immunity may be dependent upon the type and the extent of malignancy and the experimental system employed. Second, it is thought that ID TCD8 clones may be &#8216;too visible&#8217; to the immune system and consequently more prone to central and/or peripheral tolerance mechanisms16,21. Third, heterogeneic tumors may contain neoplastic cells that avoid detection by many, if not most, CTLs by displaying only a narrow spectrum of peptide:MHC complexes. Under these circumstances, TCD8 responses of insufficient breadth are likely to afford such tumor cells a survival advantage, thus potentiating their outgrowth22. It is for the above reasons that many view immunodominance as a hurdle to successful TCD8-based vaccination and therapies against cancer.
Inoculation of C57BL/6 mice with simian virus 40 (SV40)-transformed cells that express large tumor Ag (T Ag) provides a powerful preclinical system to study TCD8 immunodominance. This model offers several benefits. First, the peptide epitopes of this clinically relevant oncoprotein are well-characterized in this mouse strain23 (Table 1). Second, T Ag epitopes, which are called sites I, II/III, IV, and V, trigger TCD8 responses that are consistently arranged in the following hierarchical order: site IV &#62;&#62; site I &#8805; site II/III &#62;&#62; site V. Accordingly, site IV-specific TCD8 mount the most robust response to T Ag. In contrast, sites I and II/III are subdominant, and site V-specific TCD8 are least abundant and usually only detectable in the absence of responsiveness to other epitopes23,24. Third, the T Ag+ tumor cell line utilized in the protocol described herein, namely C57SV fibrosarcoma cells, and those used in our previous investigations16,17,18,19,25,26, are transformed with subgenomic SV40 fragments25. Therefore, they are unable to assemble and release SV40 virions that could potentially infect host APCs. In addition, C57SV cells are devoid of classic costimulatory molecules such as CD80 (B7-1), CD86 (B7-2), and CD137 ligand (4-1BBL)16. The above attributes make these lines ideal for examination of in vivo TCD8 activation via cross-priming. Cross-priming is a major pathway in inducing TCD8 responses, especially those launched against tumor cells of non-hematopoietic origin that fail to directly prime na&#239;ve T cells25.
Antitumor TCD8 frequencies and/or functions can be monitored by MHC I tetramer staining, intracellular staining for effector cytokines (e.g., interferon [IFN]-&#947;) or lytic molecules (e.g., perforin), enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assays and ex vivo cytotoxicity assays. Since their inception in the 1990s27,28, carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo killing assays have enabled evaluation of cytotoxic responses mediated by antiviral CTLs29,30,31, antitumor CTLs16,32, natural killer (NK) cells33, glycolipid-reactive invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells34, and preexisting and de novo donor-specific alloantibodies26. Therefore, their applications can be of interest to a wide readership, including but not limited to investigators working in the areas of tumor immunology and immunotherapy, anti-pathogen immunity, and preventative and therapeutic vaccine design.&#160;&#160;
To assess cell-mediated cytotoxicity in typical scenarios, two populations of na&#239;ve splenocytes that display either an irrelevant Ag or a cognate Ag(s) are labeled with two different doses of CFSE, mixed in equal numbers and injected into na&#239;ve (control) or killer cell-harboring mice. The presence/absence of each target population is then examined by flow cytometry.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;
We have optimized and employed in vivo killing assays in our studies on immunodominance in both antiviral and antitumor TCD8 responses12,16,17. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the simultaneous assessment of ID and SD TCD8 responses to T Ag epitopes, which can be readily adopted for similar investigations in other experimental systems. We also provide representative results demonstrating that nTreg cell depletion and PD-1 blockade can selectively enhance ID TCD8- and SD TCD8-induced cytotoxicity, respectively. At the end, we will discuss multiple advantages of in vivo killing assays as well as some of their inherent limitations.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:872px;" width="871">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:335px;">0.25% Trypsin-EDTA (1X)</td>
			<td style="width:164px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">25200-056</td>
			<td style="width:211px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">ACK Lysing Buffer</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:163px;">A1049201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti-mouse CD25 (clone PC-61.5.3)</td>
			<td>Bio X Cell</td>
			<td>BE0012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Anti-mouse PD-1 (clone RMP1-14)</td>
			<td>Bio X Cell</td>
			<td>BE0146</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">CFSE</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C34554</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DMEM (1X)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11965-092</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Wisent Bioproducts</td>
			<td>080-150</td>
			<td>Heat-inactivate prior to use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">GlutaMAX (100X)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">HEPES (1M)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15630080</td>
			<td>10 mM final concentration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MEM Non-Essential Amino Acids Solution (100X)&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11140-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Penicillin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0781</td>
			<td>Stock is 100X</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rat IgG1 (clone KLH/G1-2-2)</td>
			<td>SouthernBiotech</td>
			<td>0116-01</td>
			<td>Isotype control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rat IgG1 (clone HRPN)</td>
			<td>Bio X Cell</td>
			<td>BE0088</td>
			<td>Isotype control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rat IgG1 (clone TNP6A7)</td>
			<td>Bio X Cell</td>
			<td>BP0290</td>
			<td>Isotype control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Rat IgG2a (clone 2A3)</td>
			<td>Bio X Cell</td>
			<td>BP0089</td>
			<td>Isotype control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RPMI 1640 (1X)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11875-093</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium Pyruvate (100 mM)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11360-070</td>
			<td>1 mM final concentration</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

tailoring in vivo cytotoxicity assays to study immunodominance in tumor-specific cd8+ t cell responses

Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays enable sensitive and accurate quantitation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses elicited against tumor- and pathogen-derived peptides. They offer several advantages over traditional killing assays. First, they permit the monitoring of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity within architecturally intact secondary lymphoid organs, typically in the spleen. Second, they allow for mechanistic studies during the priming, effector and recall phases of CTL responses. Third, they provide useful platforms for vaccine/drug efficacy testing in a truly in vivo setting. Here, we provide an optimized protocol for the examination of concomitant CTL responses against more than one peptide epitope of a model tumor antigen (Ag), namely, simian virus 40 (SV40)-encoded large T Ag (T Ag). Like most other clinically relevant tumor proteins, T Ag harbors many potentially immunogenic peptides. However, only four such peptides induce detectable CTL responses in C57BL/6 mice. These responses are consistently arranged in a hierarchical order based on their magnitude, which forms the basis for TCD8 &#8220;immunodominance&#8221; in this powerful system. Accordingly, the bulk of the T Ag-specific TCD8 response is focused against a single immunodominant epitope while the other three epitopes are recognized and responded to only weakly. Immunodominance compromises the breadth of antitumor TCD8 responses and is, as such, considered by many as an impediment to successful vaccination against cancer. Therefore, it is important to understand the cellular and molecular factors and mechanisms that dictate or shape TCD8 immunodominance. The protocol we describe here is tailored to the investigation of this phenomenon in the T Ag immunization model, but can be readily modified and extended to similar studies in other tumor models. We provide examples of how the impact of experimental immunotherapeutic interventions can be measured using in vivo cytotoxicity assays.

The goal of the experiment whose results are depicted in Figure 1 was to determine whether the presence and functions of nTreg cells shape or alter the immunodominance hierarchy of T Ag-specific TCD8. C57BL/6 mice were injected i.p. with PBS or with 0.5 mg of an anti-CD25 mAb (clone PC-61.5.3 [PC61]) four days before they received 2 x 107 C57SV tumor cells i.p. In separate experiments, a rat IgG1 isotype control was used in lieu of PBS. Successful nTreg cell depletion b...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses at JoVE.com

Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses

We describe here a flow cytometry-based in vivo killing assay that enables examination of immunodominance in cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses to a model tumor antigen. We provide examples of how this elegant assay may be employed for mechanistic studies and for drug efficacy testing.

Tailoring In Vivo Cytotoxicity Assays to Study Immunodominance in Tumor-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses

Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-based in vivo cytotoxicity assays enable sensitive and accurate quantitation of CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocyte ...

This assay can be employed to quantify T-cell-mediated cytotoxicity against two distinct peptide epitopes of tumor antigens simultaneously. The in vivo nature of this assay allows for cytotoxic function of T-cells to be measured within the intact architecture of a secondary lymphoid organ. In addition, the killing observed is an accurate reflection of the absolute number of T-cells, and not just their frequencies, which can be misleading.This assay enables the examination of cytotoxic T cell responses to immunodominant and sub-dominant tumor antigens. It therefore provides valuable information when you're designing a vaccine, as well as immunotherapeutic protocols for cancer. Our protocol has been tailored to study CD8 T cell responses.However, it can be modified to measure cytotoxicity elicited by other killer cell types, such as NK cells and innate-like T lymphocytes. This assay requires experience in aseptic technique, mouse tissue handling, target cell prep, as well as expertise in tail vein injections. One needs to acquire this skill set before attempting the in vivo killing assay.Once the T-antigen-positive adherent tumor cell line has become fully confluent or slightly over-confluent, gently rinse the monolayer with sterile, warm PBS, and detach the tumor cells with 0.25%trypsin EDTA in a biosafety cabinet. Tap the sides of the culture flask several times to release the remaining adherent cells, and stop the reaction after about five minutes with the addition of five milliliters of DMEM medium. Pipette the cell solution a few times before filtering the cell suspension through a 70-micrometer-pore cell strainer into a 50-milliliter conical tube.Collect the cells by centrifugation, and resuspend the pellet in 10 milliliters of sterile, cold PBS for the first of three washes under the same conditions. After the third wash, resuspend the cells at a four times 10 to the seven cells per milliliter of sterile PBS concentration, and inject 500 microliters of the T-antigen-positive tumor cell suspension intraperitoneally into each six-to-12-week-old C57 Black 6 mouse recipient. For target splenocyte preparation, place the euthanized donor mouse in the prone position, and spray the animal with 70%ethanol.Using sterile forceps and scissors, lift the skin and make a small ventral midline incision. Cut the skin in a cross-like fashion to expose the peritoneum, and use the forceps to pull up the peritoneum in a tent-like fashion, without catching any of the internal organs. Cut open the peritoneum to expose the peritoneal cavity, and gently transfer the spleen to a 15-milliliter Dounce tissue grinder containing five milliliters of sterile PBS.Use the plunger to apply manual pressure until the splenic tissue dissipates into a red homogeneous cell suspension, and transfer the homogenate into a 15-milliliter tube. Collect the suspension by centrifugation, and resuspend the pellet in four milliliters of ammonium chloride potassium lysine buffer to eliminate the erythrocytes. After four minutes, stop the process with eight milliliters of complete medium, and filter the cell suspension through a 70-micrometer-pore cell strainer into a new 50-milliliter tube.Separate the white blood cells from the red blood cell debris by centrifugation, and resuspend the pellet in 12 milliliters of complete medium. Then split the splenocyte suspension into three equal four-milliliter aliquots. For peptide coding of the target splenocytes, pulse one splenocyte aliquot with one micromolar of irrelevant peptide, one aliquot with one micromolar of Site I peptide, and one aliquot with one micromolar of Site IV peptide for one hour at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide.At the end of the incubation, remove the excess peptide by centrifugation and wash the peptide-pulsed splenocytes two times in 12 milliliters of sterile, cold PBS per wash per tube. After the second wash, resuspend the cells in four milliliters of fresh, sterile PBS per tube. Add 025, 0.25, and two-micromolar CFSE into the irrelevant, Site I, and Site IV peptide-pulsed splenocyte suspensions respectively.Place the tubes at 37 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes with manual inversion once every five minutes. At the end of the incubation, add three milliliters of heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum to each tube to stop the CFSE reaction and bring the final volume in each tube up to 15 milliliters with PBS. Then collect the dye-labeled cells by centrifugation for two washes in 12 milliliters of fresh, sterile PBS per wash.To confirm an adequate CFSE labeling of the target splenocytes, resuspend the pellet in three milliliters of PBS and mix with gentle vortexing. Transfer 10 microliters from each CFSE-labeled cell suspension into an individual five-milliliter round bottom polystyrene fluorescence-activated cell sorting, or FACS tube, containing PBS, and load the tube onto a flow cytometer equipped with a 488-nanometer laser. In the flow cytometer software, create a lymphocyte gate based on the forward scatter and side scatter properties of the cells before acquiring 5, 000 events falling within the lymphocyte gate in the Fluorescence 1 channel.Within the parent CFSE-positive population, draw additional histogram gates to identify the CFSE-low, CFSE-intermediate, and CFSE-high subpopulations. Then confirm an equal or a near-equal event number within the three gates for the other two tubes of labeled cells. For injection of the target cells, first gently vortex the source tubes and pool the three CFSE-labeled cell suspensions into a new tube at equal ratios.Top up the tube contents with sterile PBS, and collect the cells by centrifugation for counting. Then adjust the volume to a one times 10 to the seven mixed target cells per 200 microliters of PBS per recipient concentration, and inject 200 microliter volumes of the cell suspension into the tail vein of each recipient C57 Black 6 mouse. Two or four hours after the injection, remove and process the spleen of each recipient animal as demonstrated, and resuspend the isolated white blood cells in three milliliters of PBS per spleen.Transfer approximately one times 10 to the seven cells from each processed spleen into a clean FACS tube, and immediately run the cells on the flow cytometer as demonstrated to gate the CFSE-low, intermediate, and high target cell populations. Then acquire a total of 2, 000 CFSE-low events in the Fluorescence 1 channel, and calculate the specific lysis of each cognate target cell population according to the formula detailed in the text. In this representative experiment, the success of the depletion of naturally occurring regulatory T-cells in mice injected with anti-CD25 monoclonal antibody was confirmed by flow cytometry.As expected, near-equal peaks corresponding to the control and cognate target cells were detectable in naive mice. In contrast, Site-IV-displaying target cells were almost completely absent in T-antigen-primed mice, regardless of their prior treatment with anti-CD25 monoclonal antibody or PBS. Interestingly, naturally occurring T reg cell depletion by anti-CD25 monoclonal antibody augmented in vivo cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-mediated lysis of Site-I-pulsed target cells.In this second representative investigation, programmed death 1 blockade enhanced sub-dominant CD8-positive T cell sites one and two-slash-three-specific responses, suggesting that interfering with programmed death 1/programmed death ligand 1 interactions may induce epitope-spreading in anti-cancer CD8-positive T cell responses. It's critical when labeling your donor cells with CFSE, make sure your concentrations are precise. Otherwise this may result in overlapping histogram peaks, which make your required calculations and data interpretation difficult, if not impossible.It will be important to optimize in vivo cytotoxicity assays to quantify effector functions elicited by different killer cell types that recognize peptide and non-peptide antigens in the same host.

tailoring-vivo-cytotoxicity-assays-to-study-immunodominance-tumor

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Retroviral Transduction of T-cell Receptors in Mouse T-cells

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play a central role in the immune system. TCRs on T-cell surfaces can specifically recognize peptide antigens presented by antigen presenting cells (APCs)1. This recognition leads to the activation of T-cells and a series of functional outcomes (e.g. cytokine production, killing of the target cells). Understanding the functional role of TCRs is critical to harness the power of the immune system to treat a variety of immunology related diseases (e.g. cancer or autoimmunity).
It is convenient to study TCRs in mouse models, which can be accomplished in several ways. Making TCR transgenic mouse models is costly and time-consuming and currently there are only a limited number of them available2-4. Alternatively, mice with antigen-specific T-cells can be generated by bone marrow chimera. This method also takes several weeks and requires expertise5. Retroviral transduction of TCRs into in vitro activated mouse T-cells is a quick and relatively easy method to obtain T-cells of desired peptide-MHC specificity. Antigen-specific T-cells can be generated in one week and used in any downstream applications. Studying transduced T-cells also has direct application to human immunotherapy, as adoptive transfer of human T-cells transduced with antigen-specific TCRs is an emerging strategy for cancer treatment6.
Here we present a protocol to retrovirally transduce TCRs into in vitro activated mouse T-cells. Both human and mouse TCR genes can be used. Retroviruses carrying specific TCR genes are generated and used to infect mouse T-cells activated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies. After in vitro expansion, transduced T-cells are analyzed by flow cytometry.

We present a protocol to produce antigen-specific mouse T-cells using retroviral transduction

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play a central role in the immune system. TCRs on T-cell surfaces can specifically recognize peptide antigens presented by antigen ...

Competitive Homing Assays to Study Gut-tropic T Cell Migration

In order to exert their function lymphocytes need to leave the blood and migrate into different tissues in the body. Lymphocyte adhesion to endothelial cells and tissue extravasation is a multistep process controlled by different adhesion molecules (homing receptors) expressed on lymphocytes and their respective ligands (addressins) displayed on endothelial cells 1 2. Even though the function of these adhesion receptors can be partially studied ex vivo, the ultimate test for their physiological relevance is to assess their role during in vivo lymphocyte adhesion and migration. Two complementary strategies have been used for this purpose: intravital microscopy (IVM) and homing experiments. Although IVM has been essential to define the precise contribution of specific adhesion receptors during the adhesion cascade in real time and in different tissues, IVM is time consuming and labor intensive, it often requires the development of sophisticated surgical techniques, it needs prior isolation of homogeneous cell populations and it permits the analysis of only one tissue/organ at any given time. By contrast, competitive homing experiments allow the direct and simultaneous comparison in the migration of two (or even more) cell subsets in the same mouse and they also permit the analysis of many tissues and of a high number of cells in the same experiment.
Here we describe the classical competitive homing protocol used to determine the advantage/disadvantage of a given cell type to home to specific tissues as compared to a control cell population. We chose to illustrate the migratory properties of gut-tropic versus non gut-tropic T cells, because the intestinal mucosa is the largest body surface in contact with the external environment and it is also the extra-lymphoid tissue with the best-defined migratory requirements. Moreover, recent work has determined that the vitamin A metabolite all-trans retinoic acid (RA) is the main molecular mechanism responsible for inducing gut-specific adhesion receptors (integrin a4b7and chemokine receptor CCR9) on lymphocytes. Thus, we can readily generate large numbers of gut-tropic and non gut-tropic lymphocytes ex vivoby activating T cells in the presence or absence of RA, respectively, which can be finally used in the competitive homing experiments described here.

Competitive homing experiments allow to directly assessing the migratory properties of two different cell populations in a single mouse. Here we illustrate this procedure by comparing the migration of ex vivo-generated gut-tropic versus non-gut tropic T cells.

In order to exert their function lymphocytes need to leave the blood and migrate into different tissues in the body. Lymphocyte adhesion to endothelial ...

Quantitative High-throughput Single-cell Cytotoxicity Assay For T Cells

Cancer immunotherapy can harness the specificity of immune response to target and eliminate tumors. Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) based on the adoptive transfer of T cells genetically modified to express a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) has shown considerable promise in clinical trials1-4. There are several advantages to using CAR+ T cells for the treatment of cancers including the ability to target non-MHC restricted antigens and to functionalize the T cells for optimal survival, homing and persistence within the host; and finally to induce apoptosis of CAR+ T cells in the event of host toxicity5.
Delineating the optimal functions of CAR+ T cells associated with clinical benefit is essential for designing the next generation of clinical trials. Recent advances in live animal imaging like multiphoton microscopy have revolutionized the study of immune cell function in vivo6,7. While these studies have advanced our understanding of T-cell functions in vivo, T-cell based ACT in clinical trials requires the need to link molecular and functional features of T-cell preparations pre-infusion with clinical efficacy post-infusion, by utilizing in vitro assays monitoring T-cell functions like, cytotoxicity and cytokine secretion. Standard flow-cytometry based assays have been developed that determine the overall functioning of populations of T cells at the single-cell level but these are not suitable for monitoring conjugate formation and lifetimes or the ability of the same cell to kill multiple targets8.
Microfabricated arrays designed in biocompatible polymers like polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) are a particularly attractive method to spatially confine effectors and targets in small volumes9. In combination with automated time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, thousands of effector-target interactions can be monitored simultaneously by imaging individual wells of a nanowell array. We present here a high-throughput methodology for monitoring T-cell mediated cytotoxicity at the single-cell level that can be broadly applied to studying the cytolytic functionality of T cells.

We describe a single-cell high-throughput assay to measure cytotoxicity of T cells when incubated with tumor target cells. This method employs a dense, elastomeric array of sub-nanoliter wells (~100,000 wells/array) to spatially confine the T cells and target cells at defined ratios and is coupled to fluorescence microscopy to monitor effector-target conjugation and subsequent apoptosis.

Cancer immunotherapy can harness the specificity of  immune response to target and eliminate tumors. Adoptive cell therapy (ACT)  based on the adoptive ...

The Use of Fluorescent Target Arrays for Assessment of T Cell Responses In vivo

The ability to monitor T cell responses in vivo is important for the development of our understanding of the immune response and the design of immunotherapies. Here we describe the use of fluorescent target array (FTA) technology, which utilizes vital dyes such as carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE), violet laser excitable dyes (CellTrace Violet: CTV) and red laser excitable dyes (Cell Proliferation Dye eFluor 670: CPD) to combinatorially label mouse lymphocytes into &#62;250 discernable fluorescent cell clusters. Cell clusters within these FTAs can be pulsed with major histocompatibility (MHC) class-I and MHC class-II binding peptides and thereby act as target cells for CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, respectively. These FTA cells remain viable and fully functional, and can therefore be administered into mice to allow assessment of CD8+ T cell-mediated killing of FTA target cells and CD4+ T cell-meditated help of FTA B cell target cells in real time in vivo by flow cytometry. Since &#62;250 target cells can be assessed at once, the technique allows the monitoring of T cell responses against several antigen epitopes at several concentrations and in multiple replicates. As such, the technique can measure T cell responses at both a quantitative (e.g.&#160;the cumulative magnitude of the response) and a qualitative (e.g.&#160;functional avidity and epitope-cross reactivity of the response) level. Herein, we describe how these FTAs are constructed and give an example of how they can be applied to assess T cell responses induced by a recombinant pox virus vaccine.

The Use of Fluorescent Target Arrays for Assessment of T Cell Responses In vivo

The ability to monitor T cell responses in detail in vivo is important for the development of our understanding of the immune response. Here we describe the use of fluorescent target arrays (FTAs) in an in vivo T cell assay that assesses &#62;250 parameters simultaneously by flow cytometry.

The ability to monitor T cell responses in vivo is important for the development of our understanding of the immune response and the design of ...

Transplantation of Tail Skin to Study Allogeneic CD4 T Cell Responses in Mice

The study of T cell responses and their consequences during allo-antigen recognition requires a model that enables one to distinguish between donor and host T cells, to easily monitor the graft, and to adapt the system in order to answer different immunological questions. Medawar and colleagues established allogeneic tail-skin transplantation in mice in 1955. Since then, the skin transplantation model has been continuously modified and adapted to answer specific questions. The use of tail-skin renders this model easy to score for graft rejection, requires neither extensive preparation nor deep anesthesia, is applicable to animals of all genetic background, discourages ischemic necrosis, and permits chemical and biological intervention. 
In general, both CD4+ and CD8+ allogeneic T cells are responsible for the rejection of allografts since they recognize mismatched major histocompatibility antigens from different mouse strains. Several models have been described for activating allogeneic T cells in skin-transplanted mice. The identification of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules in different mouse strains including C57BL/6 mice was an important step toward understanding and studying T cell-mediated alloresponses. In the tail-skin transplantation model described here, a three-point mutation (I-Abm12) in the antigen-presenting groove of the MHC-class II (I-Ab) molecule is sufficient to induce strong allogeneic CD4+ T cell activation in C57BL/6 mice. Skin grafts from I-Abm12 mice on C57BL/6 mice are rejected within 12-15 days, while syngeneic grafts are accepted for up to 100 days. The absence of T cells (CD3-/- and Rag2-/- mice) allows skin graft acceptance up to 100 days, which can be overcome by transferring 2 x 104 wild type or transgenic T cells. Adoptively transferred T cells proliferate and produce IFN-&#947; in I-Abm12-transplanted Rag2-/- mice.

Tail-skin transplantation is a powerful model for studying T cell-dependent rejection and tolerance induction during allogeneic immune responses in mice. The advantages of this protocol are minor invasive surgery, and ease of monitoring with no need to sacrifice the recipient mouse.

The study of T cell responses and their consequences during allo-antigen recognition requires a model that enables one to distinguish between donor and ...

Whole-animal Imaging and Flow Cytometric Techniques for Analysis of Antigen-specific CD8+ T Cell Responses after Nanoparticle Vaccination

Traditional vaccine adjuvants, such as alum, elicit suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses. To address this major challenge in vaccine development, various nanoparticle systems have been engineered to mimic features of pathogens to improve antigen delivery to draining lymph nodes and increase antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells, leading to new vaccine formulations optimized for induction of antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses. In this article, we describe the synthesis of a &#8220;pathogen-mimicking&#8221; nanoparticle system, termed interbilayer-crosslinked multilamellar vesicles (ICMVs) that can serve as an effective vaccine carrier for co-delivery of subunit antigens and immunostimulatory agents and elicitation of potent cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. We describe methods for characterizing hydrodynamic size and surface charge of vaccine nanoparticles with dynamic light scattering and zeta potential analyzer and present a confocal microscopy-based procedure to analyze nanoparticle-mediated antigen delivery to draining lymph nodes. Furthermore, we show a new bioluminescence whole-animal imaging technique utilizing adoptive transfer of luciferase-expressing, antigen-specific CD8+ T cells into recipient mice, followed by nanoparticle vaccination, which permits non-invasive interrogation of expansion and trafficking patterns of CTLs in real time. We also describe tetramer staining and flow cytometric analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells for longitudinal quantification of endogenous T cell responses in mice vaccinated with nanoparticles.

We describe whole-animal imaging and flow cytometry-based techniques for monitoring expansion of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in response to immunization with nanoparticles in a murine model of vaccination.

Traditional vaccine adjuvants, such as alum, elicit suboptimal CD8+ T cell responses. To address this major challenge in vaccine development, various ...

Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing Phagosomes from Macrophages

Salmonella typhimurium is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes gastroenteritis in humans. After invasion of the lamina propria, S. typhimurium bacteria are quickly detected and phagocytized by macrophages, and contained in vesicles known as phagosomes in order to be degraded. Isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes have been widely used to study how S. typhimurium infection alters the process of phagosome maturation to prevent bacterial degradation. Classically, the isolation of bacteria-containing phagosomes has been performed by sucrose gradient centrifugation. However, this process is time-consuming, and requires specialized equipment and a certain degree of dexterity. Described here is a simple and quick method for the isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes from macrophages by coating the bacteria with biotin-streptavidin-conjugated magnetic beads. Phagosomes obtained by this method can be suspended in any buffer of choice, allowing the utilization of isolated phagosomes for a broad range of assays, such as protein, metabolite, and lipid analysis. In summary, this method for the isolation of S. typhimurium-containing phagosomes is specific, efficient, rapid, requires minimum equipment, and is more versatile than the classical method of isolation by sucrose gradient-ultracentrifugation.

Isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing Phagosomes from Macrophages

We describe here a simple and quick method for the isolation of Salmonella typhimurium-containing phagosomes from macrophages by coating the bacteria with biotin and streptavidin.

Salmonella typhimurium is a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes gastroenteritis in humans. After invasion of the lamina propria, S. ...

A Suction Blister Protocol to Study Human T-cell Recall Responses In Vivo

Cutaneous antigen-recall models allow for studies of human memory responses in vivo. When combined with skin suction blister (SB) induction, this model offers accessibility to rare populations of antigen-specific T-cells representative of the cellular memory response as well as the cytokine microenvironment in situ.
This report describes the practical procedure of a cutaneous recall, an SB induction, and a harvest of antigen-specific T-cells. To exemplify the method, the tuberculin skin test is used for antigenic recall in individuals who, prior to this study, underwent a Bacillus Calmette-Gu&#233;rin vaccination against an infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Finally, examples of multiplex and flow cytometric analyses of SB specimens are provided, illustrating high fractions of antigen-specific polyfunctional CD4+ T-cells available by this sampling method compared with cells isolated from the blood.
The method described here is safe and minimally invasive, provides a unique opportunity to study both innate and adaptive immune responses in vivo, and may be beneficial to a broad community of researchers working with cell-mediated immunity and human memory responses, in the context of vaccine development.

A Suction Blister Protocol to Study Human T-cell Recall Responses In Vivo

Here, we provide a demonstration of the suction blister cutaneous recall model. The model allows a simple access to study human in vivo adaptive immune responses, for instance in the context of vaccine development.

Cutaneous antigen-recall models allow for studies of human memory responses in vivo. When combined with skin suction blister (SB) induction, this model ...

Optimized Interferon-gamma ELISpot Assay to Measure T Cell Responses in the Guinea Pig Model after Vaccination

The guinea pig has played a pivotal role as a relevant small animal model in the development of vaccines for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, influenza, diphtheria, and viral hemorrhagic fevers. We have demonstrated that plasmid-DNA (pDNA) vaccine delivery into the skin elicits robust humoral responses in the guinea pig. However, the use of this animal to model immune responses was somewhat limited in the past due to the lack of available reagents and protocols to study T cell responses. T cells play a pivotal role in both immunoprophylactic and immunotherapeutic mechanisms. Understanding T cell responses is crucial for the development of infectious disease and oncology vaccines and accommodating delivery devices. Here we describe an interferon-gamma (IFN-&#947;) enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) assay for guinea pig peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The assay enables researchers to characterize vaccine-specific T-cell responses in this important rodent model. The ability to assay cells isolated from the peripheral blood provides the opportunity to track immunogenicity in individual animals.

The development of the interferon-gamma ELISpot assay for guinea pig PBMCs allows the characterization of T-cell responses in this highly relevant model for studying infectious diseases. We have applied the assay to measure T cell responses associated with intradermal delivery of DNA vaccines.

The guinea pig has played a pivotal role as a relevant small animal model in the development of vaccines for infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, ...

Use of Single Chain MHC Technology to Investigate Co-agonism in Human CD8+ T Cell Activation

Non-stimulatory self peptide MHC (pMHC) complexes do not induce T cell activation and effector functions, but can enhance T cell responses to agonist pMHC, through a process termed co-agonism. This protocol describes an experimental system to investigate co-agonism during human CD8+ T cell activation by expressing human MHC class I molecules presenting pre-determined peptides as single polypeptides (single chain MHC) in a xenogeneic cell line. We expressed single chain MHCs under conditions where low levels of agonist single chain p-MHC complexes and high levels of non-stimulatory single chain p-MHC complexes were expressed. Use of this experimental system allowed us to compare CD8+ T cell responses to agonist pMHC in the presence or absence of non-stimulatory pMHC. The protocol describes cell line transfection with single chain MHC constructs, generation of stable cell lines, culture of hepatitis B virus-specific human CD8+ T cells and T cell activation experiments simultaneously quantifying cytokine production and degranulation. The presented methods can be used for research on different aspects of CD8+ T cell activation in human T cell systems with known peptide MHC specificity.

This protocol describes the use of single chain MHC class I complexes to investigate molecular interactions in human CD8+ T cell activation: generation of engineered antigen presenting cells expressing single chain constructs, culture of human CD8+ T cell clone and T cell activation experiments.

Non-stimulatory self peptide MHC (pMHC) complexes do not induce T cell activation and effector functions, but can enhance T cell responses to agonist ...