This work was supported by the European Research Council, ERC (project n. 677313 BioCircuit) an NWO-VIDI grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, 723.016.003), funding from the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science (Gravity programs, 024.001.035 &#38; 024.003.013), the Human Frontier Science Program Grant RGP0032/2015, the European Research Council under the European Union&#8217;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program Grant 723106, and a Swiss National Science Foundation Grant 200021_182019.

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

A PDMS-based multilayer microfluidic device has been presented, and its capability to sustain IVTT reactions for prolonged periods of time has been demonstrated. Although well-suited for this specific example, this technology can conceivably be used for numerous other applications. The additional control over fluid flow - paired with the ability to continuously replenish reaction reagents whilst removing (by)products - is ideal for continuous synthesis reactions, the investigation of various dynamic behaviors, and the simultaneous conduction of multiple variations of a single reaction.
Despite the relatively straightforward fabrication process of PDMS based devices, the use thereof requires an extensive hardware setup. Comprising valve arrays, pressure regulators, pressure pumps, incubators, and cooling units, the transition from fabrication to use is not elementary, and requires a significant initial investment. In addition, the ability to consistently set-up and perform successful experiments with these devices requires a significant time-investment; a point which this manuscript aims to address. However, once in place, the entire setup can be modified for a range of purposes. Furthermore, the hardware setup comprises numerous modular elements, each of which can be expanded to allow more complex microfluidic device designs to be employed. Additionally, the modular design enables the replacement of hardware components by similarly functioning alternatives, such that users are not limited to the specific setup described here48,49.
Variability between individual devices, and in the external conditions (such as pressure fluctuations) can result in inaccuracies when performing experiments using these devices. To address this issue, a calibration of the system should be performed prior to each experiment, providing a unique Refresh Ratio for each of the reactors. Whilst the calibration addresses the device-to-device and experiment-to-experiment variations, it is a time consuming process and not flawless. Fluids with differing viscosities will not flow with the same rate when exposed to identical pressure, and as such performing the calibration with multiple reagents may not yield identical Refresh Ratios. This effect is attenuated by utilising three control channels to peristaltically pump the reagents into the microfluidic device, as opposed to regulating the flow by varying the supplied pressure only. As a last resort in cases where the disparity in viscosity is very large, a unique Refresh Ratio can be implemented for each individual reagent by performing multiple calibration experiments.
The use of a peristaltic pump to inject reagents into the microfluidic device attenuates the effects of using solutions with varying viscosities, however it also creates a secondary problem. Using discrete steps to pump fluids into the microfluidic device, means that the resolution of injections into a single reactor, is limited by the volume injected when performing a single pump cycle. Within our research this value - determined during the calibration - is approximately equal to 1%, indicating that a single pump cycle displaces approximately 1% of the reactor volume (about 0.1 nL). As such, displacing 30% of the reactor volume requires the execution of 30 pump cycles, with 23 pump cycles of the IVTT reaction solution being added, and only 7 pump cycles of DNA or ultrapure water being added. Although sufficient for our research, alternative experimental protocols may encounter problems when attempting to add larger numbers of unique reagents, use a lower Refresh Fraction, or add smaller volumes of a single reagent to a reactor. In such cases, the microfluidic device design can be adapted to provide reactors with a larger volume. An example of such is reported in Niederholtmeyer et al.36.
Crucially, the device outlined within this manuscript allows reactions to be sustained for prolonged durations resulting in steady-state transcription and translation rates. By periodically injecting new reagents into the reactors - and removing reaction (by)products - the reactions are sustained and complex dynamic behaviors can be monitored. In this way, a platform has been created that - to some extent - mimics the cellular environment. Furthermore, this platform enables the exploration of the system dynamics, by adapting the period between injections and the specific composition of the injections. As a result, these multilayer microfluidic devices are a powerful tool for the characterisation and optimisation of novel synthetic networks which display complex dynamic behavior.

Cells are able to sense and respond to their environment using complex dynamic regulatory networks1,2. The field of synthetic biology utilizes our knowledge of the naturally occurring components comprising these networks to engineer biological systems that can expand the functionality of cells3,4. Conversely, it is also possible to further our understanding of the natural networks governing life by designing simplified, synthetic analogues of existing circuits or by forward-engineering biological systems which exhibit naturally occurring behaviors. The de novo engineering of such biological systems is performed in a bottom-up fashion where novel genetic circuits or signalling pathways are engineered in a rational manner, using well-defined parts5,6. Combining the rational design of networks with the design of biologically relevant systems enables the in-depth characterization and study of biological regulatory systems with various levels of abstraction7.
The pioneering works of Elowitz and Leibler8 and Gardner et al.9 were the first to demonstrate the successful introduction of synthetic genetic networks into cellular hosts. In the following decade, numerous researchers have continued to build on these initial successes despite the emergence of several limitations regarding the introduction of synthetic circuits into cells7,10,11,12. Ideally, the introduction of synthetic circuits into cellular hosts should occur in a modular fashion. Unfortunately, the complexity of the cellular environment makes this particularly challenging, with the function of many parts and networks being highly context dependent12,13,14. As a result, networks often experience undesired interactions with native host componentry which can affect the function of the synthetic circuit. Similarly, components of the exogenous network can inhibit host processes, compete for shared resources within the host, and influence growth kinetics15,16,17. Consequently, in order to rationally design and predict the behavior of synthetic networks in an in vivo environment, a comprehensive model of all host and circuit-specific dynamics is required18.
A viable alternative to the use of cellular hosts for the characterization of synthetic networks is the application of in vitro transcription and translation (IVTT) technologies. Acting as a testbed for synthetic networks, reactions are performed in solutions comprising all the components required to enable gene expression19,20,21. In this manner, a biologically relevant, albeit artificial, environment is created within which synthetic networks can be tested22,23,24,25,26,27,28. A major advantage of using IVTT solutions is the ability to perform reactions under user-specified conditions, with researchers able to tune the precise composition of each reaction2. Furthermore, the cell-free approach enables high-throughput testing of synthetic networks, since it removes the need to perform time-consuming cellular cloning steps. As a result, the duration of successive design - build - test cycles is significantly reduced29,30,31,32. The design cycle can be further accelerated by utilizing cell-free cloning techniques such as the Gibson assembly to rapidly engineer novel networks, and by constructing networks from linear DNA templates which - unlike the plasmids required for in vivo testing - can be amplified via polymerase chain reactions (PCR)33,34.
Batch reactions are the simplest method by which IVTT reactions can be performed, requiring a single reaction vessel wherein all of the reaction components are combined35. Such reactions are sufficient for protein expression and basic circuit testing yet prove insufficient when attempting to study the long-term dynamic behavior of a network. Over the course of a batch reaction, reagents are either depleted or undergo degradation resulting in a continuous decrease of the transcription and translation rates. Furthermore, as reactions progress by-products accumulate that can interfere with - or completely inhibit - the correct functioning of the network. Ultimately, the use of batch reactors limits the dynamic behavior which can be observed, with negative regulation being particularly challenging to implement5,36.
The versatility of IVTT systems enables multiple alternative methods by which prolonged IVTT reactions can be performed, ranging from continuous flow to droplet based methods as well as simpler dialysis approaches2,30,37,38,39,40. The application of microfluidic devices offers users increased control over their reactions whilst increasing the throughput and minimizing costs35,41,42, with each specific approach having its own advantages. The use of continuous flow can be easily optimized for increasing expression yields however, the inability to effectively remove specific reaction products makes the study of dynamic behavior non-trivial39. Whilst employing droplet based microfluidic systems allows high-throughput screening of novel networks, the difficulty of supplying fresh reagents to the reaction results in the droplets resembling small volume batch reactions43. Dialysis based reactors allow the introduction of fresh reagents as well as the removal of some reaction products however, RNA molecules and larger proteins accumulate within the reactor, being too large to diffuse through the membrane pores. Furthermore, large volumes of reagents are required to sustain these reactions for prolonged periods30,44. In 2013, Maerkl et al. presented a multi-layered microfluidic device designed specifically for conducting prolonged IVTT reactions36,45. The use of multi-layered microfluidic devices permits direct control over fluid flow, allowing for the redirection of flow as well as the isolation of fluid in specific regions of the device46,47. These isolated regions can function as independent nanoliter-scale reaction chambers wherein IVTT reactions can be performed. Over the course of a single IVTT reaction, periodic injections of fresh reagents into the reactor are used to replenish IVTT components and DNA templates. Simultaneously, an equal volume of the old reaction solution is displaced, removing reaction products. In this manner, an out-of-equilibrium environment is maintained where the basal transcription and translation rates remain in steady-state, prolonging the lifetime of IVTT reactions and allowing rich dynamic behaviors to occur. By applying this approach, researchers are able to investigate the kinetic rates of the individual processes occurring within a specific circuit, aiding in the forward-engineering of novel genetic networks. For instance, Niederholtmeyer et al. implemented this approach to characterize various elements of a genetic ring oscillator, determining the kinetic rates thereof36. In further studies, Yelleswarapu et al. showed that the kinetic rates of sigma factor 28 (&#963;28) determined under batch conditions were insufficient to describe the behavior of a &#963;28-based oscillator, and that the addition of flow-based data improved model predictions of the network behavior22.
The goal of this manuscript is to present a complete protocol for the fabrication of multilayer microfluidic devices capable of performing long-term IVTT reactions. In addition, this manuscript will describe all of the hardware and software required to perform prolonged IVTT reactions. The actuation of the microfluidic device - necessary to control the flow of fluids therein - is achieved using a series of pneumatic valves which connect directly to the microfluidic devices via lengths of tubing. In turn, the pneumatic valves are controlled via a custom-built virtual control interface. Fluid flow within the microfluidic devices is achieved using continuous pressure which is provided by a commercially available pressure regulation system. IVTT reactions are typically performed between 29 &#176;C and 37 &#176;C and a microscope incubator is used to regulate the temperature during reactions. However, the functionality of the IVTT mixture gradually degrades when stored above 4 &#176;C. As such, this manuscript will expand on the off-chip cooling system used to cool the IVTT mixture prior to injection into the microfluidic device. In conclusion, this manuscript provides a comprehensive overview of the procedures required to successfully perform prolonged IVTT reactions using a microfluidic flow reactor such that other researchers will be able to replicate this technology with relative ease.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20063.365</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AZ 40 XT</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Positive Photoresist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AZ 726 MIF Developer</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Developer Positive Photoresist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany)</td>
			<td>109634</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope slides</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>ECN 631-1550</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mr Dev 600</td>
			<td>Microresist Technology GmbH (Berlin, Germany)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Developer Negative Photoresist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon Free Heat Sink Grease</td>
			<td>Circuit Works</td>
			<td>CW7270</td>
			<td>Thermal Compound</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicon wafers</td>
			<td>Silicon Materials</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>&#60;1-0-0&#62; orientation, 100 mm diameter, 525 &#181;m thickness</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SU-8 3050</td>
			<td>Microchem Corp. (Newton, MA)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Negative Photoresist</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard 184 Elastomer Kit (PDMS)</td>
			<td>The Dow Chemical Company</td>
			<td>01317318</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>448931-10G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4 channel digital input/output module</td>
			<td>WAGO Kontakttechnik GmbH</td>
			<td>750-504</td>
			<td>8x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera lens</td>
			<td>The Imaging Source</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Compression fitting</td>
			<td>Koolance, Inc.</td>
			<td>FIT-V06X10</td>
			<td>Fitting for tubing with 6mm ID and 10mm OD. 4x</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Controller end module</td>
			<td>WAGO Kontakttechnik GmbH</td>
			<td>750-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Device connecting tubing</td>
			<td>Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics</td>
			<td>AAD04103</td>
			<td>0.02&#34; ID, 0.06&#34; OD, Tygon Tubing (ND-100-80)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Device connector pins</td>
			<td>Unimed SA (Lausanne, Switserland)</td>
			<td>200.010-A</td>
			<td>AISI 304 tubing, 0.35mm ID, 0.65mm OD, 8mm L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethernet Controller</td>
			<td>WAGO Kontakttechnik GmbH</td>
			<td>750-881</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Female bus connector</td>
			<td>Encitech</td>
			<td>DTCK15-DBS-K</td>
			<td>15 pole female bus connector</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluid reservoirs</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>Fluiwell-4C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluigent pressure system</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>MFCS-EZ</td>
			<td>0 - 345 mbar</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hg short arc lamp</td>
			<td>Advanced Radiation Corporation</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>350W</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hot plate</td>
			<td>Torrey Pines Scientific</td>
			<td>HP61</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon Instruments</td>
			<td>Eclipse Ti-E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LabVIEW Software</td>
			<td>de Greef Lab, Eindhoven University of Technology</td>
			<td colspan="2">https://github.com/tfadgreef/Microfluidic-Device-Control-Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid coolant</td>
			<td>Koolance, Inc.</td>
			<td>LIQ-705CL-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luer stubs</td>
			<td>Instech Laboratories, Inc.</td>
			<td>LS23</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Male Luer to barb connectors</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>45505-32</td>
			<td>3/32&#34; ID</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matlab Software</td>
			<td>de Greef Lab, Eindhoven University of Technology</td>
			<td colspan="2">https://github.com/tfadgreef/Microfluidic-Device-Control-Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcamera</td>
			<td>The Imaging Source</td>
			<td>DMK 42AUC03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu Photonics</td>
			<td>OrcaFlash4.0 V2 (C11440-22CU)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaker</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>EW-513000-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oven</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>Heraeus T6P 50045757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen plasma asher</td>
			<td>Quorum Technologies</td>
			<td>K1050X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PDMS puncher</td>
			<td>SYNEO</td>
			<td>Accu-Pucnh MP10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEEK tubing</td>
			<td>Trajan</td>
			<td>1301005001-5F</td>
			<td>0.005&#34; ID, 1/32&#34; OD, Red</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peltier element</td>
			<td>European Thermodynamics</td>
			<td>APH-127-10-25-S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peltier temperature controller</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>CL-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photomask</td>
			<td>CAD/Art Services, Inc.</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photomask Design</td>
			<td>Maerkl Lab, EPFL</td>
			<td>https://zenodo.org/record/886937#.XBzpA8-2nOQ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pneumatic valve array</td>
			<td>FESTO</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>1x 22 valve array and 1x 8 valve array, Normally closed valves.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power adapter</td>
			<td>Koolance, Inc.</td>
			<td>ADT-EX004S</td>
			<td>110/220V AC Power Adapter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTFE tubing</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>06417-21</td>
			<td>#24 AWG Thin Wall PTFE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Punching pin</td>
			<td>SYNEO</td>
			<td>CR0320245N21R4</td>
			<td>OD: 0.032&#34; (0.8128 mm), ID: 0.024&#34; (0.6090 mm)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVC Tubing</td>
			<td>Koolance, Inc.</td>
			<td>HOS-06CL</td>
			<td>6 mm ID, 10 mm OD</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Single edge blades</td>
			<td>GEM Scientific</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Soft tubing</td>
			<td>Fluigent</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Supplied with fluid reservoirs. (1 mm ID, 3mm OD)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spin coater</td>
			<td>Laurell Technologies Corporation</td>
			<td>WS-650MZ-23NPPB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereo microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus Corporation</td>
			<td>SZ61</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermistor cable</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>TA-29</td>
			<td>Cable with bead thermistor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV exposure system</td>
			<td>ABM, USA</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Near UV Exposure System, 350W</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum pump</td>
			<td>Vacuumbrand GmbH</td>
			<td>MD1C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water cooled cold plate block</td>
			<td>Koolance, Inc.</td>
			<td>PLT-UN40F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water cooler</td>
			<td>Koolance, Inc.</td>
			<td>EX2-755</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Weighing scales</td>
			<td>Sartorius</td>
			<td>M-prove</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a multilayer microfluidic platform for the conduction of prolonged cell-free gene expression

The limitations of cell-based synthetic biology are becoming increasingly apparent as researchers aim to develop larger and more complex synthetic genetic regulatory circuits. The analysis of synthetic genetic regulatory networks in vivo is time consuming and suffers from a lack of environmental control, with exogenous synthetic components interacting with host processes resulting in undesired behavior. To overcome these issues, cell-free characterization of novel circuitry is becoming more prevalent. In vitro transcription and translation (IVTT) mixtures allow the regulation of the experimental environment and can be optimized for each unique system. The protocols presented here detail the fabrication of a multilayer microfluidic device that can be utilized to sustain IVTT reactions for prolonged durations. In contrast to batch reactions, where resources are depleted over time and (by-) products accumulate, the use of microfluidic devices allows the replenishment of resources as well as the removal of reaction products. In this manner, the cellular environment is emulated by maintaining an out-of-equilibrium environment in which the dynamic behavior of gene circuits can be investigated over extended periods of time. To fully exploit the multilayer microfluidic device, hardware and software have been integrated to automate the IVTT reactions. By combining IVTT reactions with the microfluidic platform presented here, it becomes possible to comprehensively analyze complex network behaviors, furthering our understanding of the mechanisms that regulate cellular processes.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Multilayer Microfluidic Platform for the Conduction of Prolonged Cell-Free Gene Expression at JoVE.com

A Multilayer Microfluidic Platform for the Conduction of Prolonged Cell-Free Gene Expression

The fabrication process of a PDMS-based, multilayer, microfluidic device that allows in vitro transcription and translation (IVTT) reactions to be performed over prolonged periods is described. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of the hardware and software required to automate and maintain these reactions for prolonged durations is provided.

The limitations of cell-based synthetic biology are becoming increasingly apparent as researchers aim to develop larger and more complex synthetic genetic ...

a-multilayer-microfluidic-platform-for-conduction-prolonged-cell-free

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

10.0K Views.  Eindhoven University of Technology. The fabrication process of a PDMS-based, multilayer, microfluidic device that allows in vitro transcription and translation (IVTT) reactions to be performed over prolonged periods is described. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of the hardware and software required to automate and maintain these reactions for prolonged durations is provided.

Video: A Multilayer Microfluidic Platform for the Conduction of Prolonged Cell-Free Gene Expression

High-throughput Protein Expression Generator Using a Microfluidic Platform

Rapidly increasing fields, such as systems biology, require the development and implementation of new technologies, enabling high-throughput and high-fidelity measurements of large systems. Microfluidics promises to fulfill many of these requirements, such as performing high-throughput screening experiments on-chip, encompassing biochemical, biophysical, and cell-based assays1. Since the early days of microfluidics devices, this field has drastically evolved, leading to the development of microfluidic large-scale integration2,3. This technology allows for the integration of thousands of micromechanical valves on a single device with a postage-sized footprint (Figure 1). We have developed a high-throughput microfluidic platform for generating in vitro expression of protein arrays (Figure 2) named PING (Protein Interaction Network Generator). These arrays can serve as a template for many experiments such as protein-protein 4, protein-RNA5 or protein-DNA6 interactions.
The device consist of thousands of reaction chambers, which are individually programmed using a microarrayer. Aligning of these printed microarrays to microfluidics devices programs each chamber with a single spot eliminating potential contamination or cross-reactivity Moreover, generating microarrays using standard microarray spotting techniques is also very modular, allowing for the arraying of proteins7, DNA8, small molecules, and even colloidal suspensions. The potential impact of microfluidics on biological sciences is significant. A number of microfluidics based assays have already provided novel insights into the structure and function of biological systems, and the field of microfluidics will continue to impact biology.

We present a microfluidic approach for the expression of protein arrays. The device consists of thousands of reaction chambers controlled by micro-mechanical valves. The microfluidic device is mated to a microarray-printed gene library. These genes are then transcribed and translated on-chip, resulting in a protein array ready for experimental use.

Rapidly increasing fields, such as systems biology, require the development and implementation of new technologies, enabling high-throughput and ...

Cell Squeezing as a Robust, Microfluidic Intracellular Delivery Platform

Rapid mechanical deformation of cells has emerged as a promising, vector-free method for intracellular delivery of macromolecules and nanomaterials. This technology has shown potential in addressing previously challenging applications; including, delivery to primary immune cells, cell reprogramming, carbon nanotube, and quantum dot delivery. This vector-free microfluidic platform relies on mechanical disruption of the cell membrane to facilitate cytosolic delivery of the target material. Herein, we describe the detailed method of use for these microfluidic devices including, device assembly, cell preparation, and system operation. This delivery approach requires a brief optimization of device type and operating conditions for previously unreported applications. The provided instructions are generalizable to most cell types and delivery materials as this system does not require specialized buffers or chemical modification/conjugation steps. This work also provides recommendations on how to improve device performance and trouble-shoot potential issues related to clogging, low delivery efficiencies, and cell viability.

Rapid mechanical deformation of cells has emerged as a promising, vector-free method for intracellular delivery of macromolecules and nanomaterials. This protocol provides detailed steps on how to use the system for a broad range of applications.

Rapid mechanical deformation of cells has emerged as a promising, vector-free method for intracellular delivery of macromolecules and nanomaterials. This ...

Microfluidic Platform for Measuring Neutrophil Chemotaxis from Unprocessed Whole Blood

Neutrophils play an essential role in protection against infections and their numbers in the blood are frequently measured in the clinic. Higher neutrophil counts in the blood are usually an indicator of ongoing infections, while low neutrophil counts are a warning sign for higher risks for infections. To accomplish their functions, neutrophils also have to be able to move effectively from the blood where they spend most of their life, into tissues, where infections occur. Consequently, any defects in the ability of neutrophils to migrate can increase the risks for infections, even when neutrophils are present in appropriate numbers in the blood. However, measuring neutrophil migration ability in the clinic is a challenging task, which is time consuming, requires large volume of blood, and expert knowledge. To address these limitations, we designed a robust microfluidic assays for neutrophil migration, which requires a single droplet of unprocessed blood, circumvents the need for neutrophil separation, and is easy to quantify on a simple microscope. In this assay, neutrophils migrate directly from the blood droplet, through small channels, towards the source of chemoattractant. To prevent the granular flow of red blood cells through the same channels, we implemented mechanical filters with right angle turns that selectively block the advance of red blood cells. We validated the assay by comparing neutrophil migration from blood droplets collected from finger prick and venous blood. We also compared these whole blood (WB) sources with neutrophil migration from samples of purified neutrophils and found consistent speed and directionality between the three sources. This microfluidic platform will enable the study of human neutrophil migration in the clinic and the research setting to help advance our understanding of neutrophil functions in health and disease.

This protocol details an assay designed to measure human neutrophil chemotaxis from one droplet of whole blood with robust reproducibility. This approach circumvents the need for neutrophil separation and requires only a few minutes of assay preparation time. The microfluidic chip enables the repeated measure of neutrophil chemotaxis over time in infants or small mammals, where sample volume is limited.

Neutrophils play an essential role in protection against infections and their numbers in the blood are frequently measured in the clinic. Higher ...

The Multi-organ Chip - A Microfluidic Platform for Long-term Multi-tissue Coculture

The ever growing amount of new substances released onto the market and the limited predictability of current in vitro test systems has led to a high need for new solutions for substance testing. Many drugs that have been removed from the market due to drug-induced liver injury released their toxic potential only after several doses of chronic testing in humans. However, a controlled microenvironment is pivotal for long-term multiple dosing experiments,&#160;as even minor alterations in extracellular conditions may greatly influence the cell physiology. We focused within our research program on the generation of a microengineered bioreactor, which can be dynamically perfused by an on-chip pump and combines at least two culture spaces for multi-organ applications. This circulatory system mimics the in vivo conditions of primary cell cultures better and assures a steadier,&#160;more quantifiable extracellular relay of signals to the cells. 
For demonstration purposes, human liver equivalents, generated by aggregating differentiated HepaRG cells with human hepatic stellate cells in hanging drop plates, were cocultured with human skin punch biopsies for up to 28 days inside the microbioreactor. The use of cell culture inserts enables the skin to be cultured at an air-liquid interface, allowing topical substance exposure. The microbioreactor system is capable of supporting these cocultures at near physiologic fluid flow and volume-to-liquid ratios, ensuring stable and organotypic culture conditions. The possibility of long-term cultures enables the repeated exposure to substances. Furthermore, a vascularization of the microfluidic channel circuit using human dermal microvascular endothelial cells yields a physiologically more relevant vascular model.

Here, we present a protocol to coculture primary cells, tissue models and punch biopsies in a microfluidic multi-organ chip for up to 28 days. Human dermal microvascular endothelial cells, liver aggregates and skin biopsies were successfully combined in a common media circulation.

The ever growing amount of new substances released onto the market and the limited predictability of current in vitro test systems has led to a high need ...

Multi-step Variable Height Photolithography for Valved Multilayer Microfluidic Devices

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to entry for non-specialists who would benefit greatly from the ability to develop their own microfluidic devices to address research questions. Particularly lacking has been the open dissemination of protocols related to photolithography, a key step in the development of a replica mold for the manufacture of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) devices. While the fabrication of single height silicon masters has been explored extensively in literature, fabrication steps for more complicated photolithography features necessary for many interesting device functionalities (such as feature rounding to make valve structures, multi-height single-mold patterning, or high aspect ratio definition) are often not explicitly outlined. 
Here, we provide a complete protocol for making multilayer microfluidic devices with valves and complex multi-height geometries, tunable for any application. These fabrication procedures are presented in the context of a microfluidic hydrogel bead synthesizer and demonstrate the production of droplets containing polyethylene glycol (PEG diacrylate) and a photoinitiator that can be polymerized into solid beads. This protocol and accompanying discussion provide a foundation of design principles and fabrication methods that enables development of a wide variety of microfluidic devices. The details included here should allow non-specialists to design and fabricate novel devices, thereby bringing a host of recently developed technologies to their most exciting applications in biological laboratories.

Multilayer microfluidic devices often involve the fabrication of master molds with complex geometries for functionality. This article presents a complete protocol for multi-step photolithography with valves and variable height features tunable to any application. As a demonstration, we fabricate a microfluidic droplet generator capable of producing hydrogel beads.

Microfluidic systems have enabled powerful new approaches to high-throughput biochemical and biological analysis. However, there remains a barrier to ...

Microfluidic Platform with Multiplexed Electronic Detection for Spatial Tracking of Particles

Microfluidic processing of biological samples typically involves differential manipulations of suspended particles under various force fields in order to spatially fractionate the sample based on a biological property of interest. For the resultant spatial distribution to be used as the assay readout, microfluidic devices are often subjected to microscopic analysis requiring complex instrumentation with higher cost and reduced portability. To address this limitation, we have developed an integrated electronic sensing technology for multiplexed detection of particles at different locations on a microfluidic chip. Our technology, called Microfluidic CODES, combines Resistive Pulse Sensing with Code Division Multiple Access to compress 2D spatial information into a 1D electrical signal. In this paper, we present a practical demonstration of the Microfluidic CODES technology to detect and size cultured cancer cells distributed over multiple microfluidic channels. As validated by the high-speed microscopy, our technology can accurately analyze dense cell populations all electronically without the need for an external instrument. As such, the Microfluidic CODES can potentially enable low-cost integrated lab-on-a-chip devices that are well suited for the point-of-care testing of biological samples.

We demonstrate a microfluidic platform with an integrated surface electrode network that combines resistive pulse sensing (RPS) with code division multiple access (CDMA), to multiplex detection and sizing of particles in multiple microfluidic channels.

Microfluidic processing of biological samples typically involves differential manipulations of suspended particles under various force fields in order to ...

A Performance-testing Platform for a Conduction Micropump with an FR-4 Copper-clad Electrode Plate

Here, a conduction micropump with symmetric planar electrode pairs prepared on flame-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) copper-clad laminate (CCL) is fabricated. It is used to investigate the influence of chamber dimensions on the performance of a conduction micropump and to determine the reliability of the conduction pump when acetone is used as the working fluid. A testing platform is set up to evaluate conduction micropump performance under different conditions. When the chamber height is 0.2 mm, the pump pressure reaches its peak value.

This paper presents a protocol for the fabrication of a conduction micropump using symmetric planar electrodes on flame-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) copper-clad laminate (CCL) to test the influence of chamber dimensions on the performance of a conduction micropump.

Here, a conduction micropump with symmetric planar electrode pairs prepared on flame-retardant glass-reinforced epoxy (FR-4) copper-clad laminate (CCL) is ...

Imaging the Root Hair Morphology of Arabidopsis Seedlings in a Two-layer Microfluidic Platform

Root hairs increase root surface area for better water uptake and nutrient absorption by the plant. Because they are small in size and often obscured by their natural environment, root hair morphology and function are difficult to study and often excluded from plant research. In recent years, microfluidic platforms have offered a way to visualize root systems at high resolution without disturbing the roots during transfer to an imaging system. The microfluidic platform presented here builds on previous plant-on-a-chip research by incorporating a two-layer device to confine the Arabidopsis thaliana main root to the same optical plane as the root hairs. This design enables the quantification of root hairs on a cellular and organelle level and also prevents z-axis drifting during the addition of experimental treatments. We describe how to store the devices in a contained and hydrated environment, without the need for fluidic pumps, while maintaining a gnotobiotic environment for the seedling. After the optical imaging experiment, the device may be disassembled and used as a substrate for atomic force or scanning electron microscopy while keeping fine root structures intact.

Imaging the Root Hair Morphology of Arabidopsis Seedlings in a Two-layer Microfluidic Platform

This article demonstrates how to culture Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings in a two-layer microfluidic platform that confines the main root and root hairs to a single optical plane. This platform can be used for real-time optical imaging of fine root morphology as well as for high-resolution imaging by other means.

Root hairs increase root surface area for better water uptake and nutrient absorption by the plant. Because they are small in size and often obscured by ...

A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

In the last decade, microfluidic techniques have been applied to study small animals, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and have proved useful as a convenient live imaging platform providing capabilities for precise control of experimental conditions in real time. In this article, we demonstrate live imaging of individual worms employing WormSpa, a previously-published custom microfluidic device. In the device, multiple worms are individually confined to separate chambers, allowing multiplexed longitudinal surveillance of various biological processes. To illustrate the capability, we performed proof-of-principle experiments in which worms were infected in the device with pathogenic bacteria, and the dynamics of expression of immune response genes and egg laying were monitored continuously in individual animals. The simple design and operation of this device make it suitable for users with no previous experience with microfluidic-based experiments. We propose that this approach will be useful for many researchers interested in longitudinal observations of biological processes under well-defined conditions.

A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

In this article, we demonstrate live imaging of individual worms employing a custom microfluidic device. In the device, multiple worms are individually confined to separate chambers, allowing multiplexed longitudinal surveillance of various biological processes.

In the last decade, microfluidic techniques have been applied to study small animals, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and have proved ...

Cell-free Protein Expression Using the Rapidly Growing Bacterium Vibrio natriegens

The marine bacterium Vibrio natriegens has garnered considerable attention as an emerging microbial host for biotechnology due to its fast growth rate. A general protocol is described for the preparation of V. natriegens crude cell extracts using common laboratory equipment. This high yielding protocol has been specifically optimized for user accessibility and reduced cost. Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) can be carried out in small scale 10 &#956;L batch reactions in either a 96- or 384-well format and reproducibly yields concentrations of &#62; 260 &#956;g/mL super folder GFP (sfGFP) within 3 h. Overall, crude cell extract preparation and CFPS can be achieved in 1&#8722;2 full days by a single user. This protocol can be easily integrated into existing protein synthesis pipelines to facilitate advances in bio-production and synthetic biology applications.

Cell-free Protein Expression Using the Rapidly Growing Bacterium Vibrio natriegens

Cell-free expression systems are powerful and cost-efficient tools for the high-throughput synthesis and screening of important proteins. Here, we describe the preparation of cell-free protein expression system using Vibrio natriegens for the rapid protein production using plasmid DNA, linear DNA, and mRNA template.

The marine bacterium Vibrio natriegens has garnered considerable attention as an emerging microbial host for biotechnology due to its fast growth rate. A ...