Name: problem-solving before instruction (ps-i): a protocol for assessment and intervention in students with different abilities
Uploaded: 2021-09-11T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Problem-Solving Before Instruction PS-I: A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities at JoVE.com

This work was supported by a project of the Principality of Asturias (FC-GRUPIN-IDI/2018/000199) and a predoctoral grant from the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports of Spain (FPU16/05802). We would like to thank Stephanie Jun for her help editing the English in the learning materials.

This protocol follows the Helsinki Declaration of Ethical Principles for Research with Humans, but applies these principles to the added difficulties of integrating research within real-life settings in education32. Specifically, neither the assignment of learning conditions nor the decision to participate can have consequences for students&#39; learning opportunities. In addition, confidentiality and the anonymity of students is maintained even when it is the teachers who are in charge of the eva...

The aim of this protocol is to guide researchers and educators in the implementation and evaluation of the PS-I approach in real classroom contexts. According to some previous experiences, PS-I can help promote deep learning and motivation in students19,21,24, but there is a need for more research about its efficacy in students with different abilities and motivational predispositions14,<sup cl...

One of the questions that teachers are most concerned about currently is how to stimulate students&#39; reflection. This concern is common in courses of a mathematical nature, such as STEM courses (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), in which the abstraction of many concepts requires a high degree of reflection, yet many students report approaching these courses purely through memory-based methods1. In addition, students often show superficial learning of the concepts1,2,3. The difficulties that students experience applying reflection and deep learning processes, however, are not only cognitive. Many students feel anxiety and demotivation faced with these courses4,5. In fact, these difficulties tend to persist throughout students&#39; educations6. It is therefore important to explore educational strategies that motivationally and cognitively prepare students for deep learning, regardless of their differing predispositions.
It is particularly useful to find strategies that complement typical instructional approaches. One of the most typical being direct instruction. Direct instruction means fully guiding students from the introduction of novel concepts with explicit information about these concepts, then following that with consolidation strategies such as problem-solving activities, feedback, discussions, or further explanations7,8. Direct instruction can be effective for easily transmitting content8,9,10. However, students often do not reflect on important aspects, such as how the content relates to their personal knowledge, or potential procedures that could work and do not11. It is therefore important to introduce complementary strategies to make students think critically.
One such strategy is the Problem-Solving before Instruction (PS-I) approach12, also referred to as the Invention approach11 or the Productive Failure approach13. PS-I is different to direct instruction in the sense that students are not directly introduced to the concepts, instead there is a problem-solving phase prior to the typical direct instruction activities in which students seek individual solutions to problems before getting any explanation about procedures for solving them.
In this initial problem, students are not expected to fully discover the target concepts13. Students may also feel cognitive overload14,15,16 and even negative affect17 with the uncertainty and the many aspects to consider. However, this experience can be productive in the long term because it can facilitate critical thinking about important features. Specifically, the initial problem can help students to become more aware of the gaps in their knowledge18,activate prior knowledge related to the content to cover13, and increase motivation because of the opportunity to base their learning on personal knowledge7,17,19.
In terms of learning, the effects of PS-I are generally seen when the results are evaluated with deep learning indicators20,21. In general no differences have been found between students who learned through PS-I and those who learned through direct instruction in terms of procedural knowledge20,22, which refers to the ability to reproduce learned procedures. However, students who go through PS-I generally exhibit higher learning in conceptual knowledge7,19,23, which refers to understanding the content covered, and transfer7,15,19,24, which refers to capacity to apply this understanding to novel situations. For example, a recent study in a class about statistical variability showed that students who were given the opportunity to invent their own solutions to measure statistical variability before receiving explanations about the general concepts and procedures in this topic demostrated better understanding at the end of the class than those who were able to directly study the relevant concepts and procedures before getting involved in any problem-solving activity23. However, some studies have shown no differences in learning16,25,26 or motivation19,26 between PS-I and direct instruction alternatives, or even better learning in direct instruction alternatives14,26, and it is important to consider potential sources of variability.
The design features underlying the implementation of PS-I are an important feature20. A systematic review20 found that there was more likely to be a learning advantage for PS-I over direct instruction alternatives when the PS-I interventions were implemented with at least one of two strategies, either formulating the initial problem with contrasting cases, or building the subsequent instruction with detailed feedback about the students&#39; solutions. Contrasting cases consist of simplified examples that differ in a few important characteristics11 (see Figure 1 for an example), and can help students identify relevant features and evaluate their own solutions during the initial problem11,20. The second strategy, providing explanations that build on the students&#39; solutions13, consist of explaining the canonical concept while giving feedback about the affordances and limitations of solutions generated by students, which can also help students focus on relevant features and evaluate the gaps in their own knowledge20, but after the initial problem-solving phase is completed (see Figure 3 for an example of the scaffolding from students&#39; typical solutions).
Given the support in the literature for these two strategies, contrasting cases and building instruction on students&#39; solutions, it is important consider them when promoting the inclusion of PS-I in real educational practice. This is the first goal of our protocol. The protocol provides materials for a PS-I intervention that incorporate these two principles. It is a protocol that,&#160;while adaptable, it is contextualized for a lesson on statistical variability, a very common lesson for university and high school students, who are generally the target populations in the literature on PS-I29. The initial problem-solving phase consists of inventing variability measures for income distributions in countries, which is a controversial topic30 that may be familiar to students in many learning areas. Then materials are provided for students to study solutions to this problem in a worked example, and for a lecture that incorporates discussion of common solutions produced by students along with embedded practice problems.
The second goal of our protocol is to make the experimental evaluation of PS-I accessible to educators and researchers, which can facilitate the investigation of PS-I from a greater variety of perspectives while maintaining some conditions constant across the literature. Yet conditions of this experimental evaluation are flexible to modifications.&#160;The experimental evaluation described in the protocol can be applied in ordinary lessons, since students in a single class can be assigned the materials for the PS-I condition or the materials for a direct instruction condition at the same time (Figure 4). This direct instruction condition is also adaptable to research and education needs, but as originally described in the protocol students start by getting the initial explanations about the target concept with the worked example, and then consolidate this knowledge with a practice problem (only presented in this condition to compensate for the time PS-I students spend on the initial problem), and with the lecture23. Potential adaptations include starting with the lecture and then having students to do the problem-solving activity, which is a typical control condition for comparing PS-I that has often led to better learning for the PS-I condition7,13,19,26. Alternatively, the control condition can be reduced to the exploration of a worked example followed by the lecture phase, which, although a more simplified version of direct instruction approaches than originally proposed, is more common in the literature and has led to varied results, with some studies indicating better learning in PS-I15,24, and others indicating better learning from this type of direct instruction condition14,26.
Finally, a third goal of the protocol is to provide resources for evaluating how students with different predispositions and cognitive abilities can benefit from PS-I15. The evaluation of these predispositions is especially important if we consider the negative predispositions that some students often have with STEM courses, and the fact that PS-I can still produce negative reactions in some cases14. There is, however, little research on this.
On the one hand, since PS-I facilitates the association of learning with individual ideas, rather than just formal knowledge, PS-I can be hypothesized as being able to help motivate students from low academic levels, those who have low feelings of competence, or low motivation about the subject13,27. One study showed that students with low mastery orientation, i.e., fewer goals related to personal learning, benefited more from PS-I than those with higher motivation to learn27. On the other hand, students with other profiles might encounter difficulties when involved in PS-I. More specifically, metacognition plays an important role in PS-I31, and students with low metacognition skills might not benefit from PS-I due to difficulties in being aware of their knowledge gaps or discerning relevant content15. In addition, as the initial phase of PS-I is based on the production of individual solutions, students with low divergent abilities, difficulties generating a variety of responses in a given situation, might benefit less from PS-I than other students. The protocol presents reliable instruments to assess for these predispositions (Table 1) although others may be considered.
In summary, this protocol aims to make an implementation of a PS-I intervention that follows accepted principles in the PS-I literature accessible to educators and researchers. Additionally, the protocols provide an experimental evaluation of this intervention, and facilitate the evaluation of students&#39; cognitive and motivational predispositions. It is a protocol that does not require access to new technologies or specific resources, and one that can be modified based on research and educational needs.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>SPSS Program</td>
			<td>International Business Machines Corporation (IBM)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Other programs for general data analysis might be used instead</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PROCESS program</td>
			<td>Andrew F. Hayes (Ohio State University)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Freely accesible at: http://www.processmacro.org. Other programs for mediation, moderation, or conditional process analyses might be used instead</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cognitive Competence Scale in the Survey of Attitudes towards Statistics (SATS-28)</td>
			<td>Candace Schau (Arizona State University)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>In case it is used, request should be requested from the author, who whold the copyright</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mastery Approach Scale in the Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Revised</td>
			<td>Andrew J. Elliot (University of Rochester)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>In case it is used, request should be requested from the author</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Regulation of Cognition Scale of the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory</td>
			<td>Gregory Schraw (University of Nevada Las Vegas)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>In case it is used, request should be requested from the creator</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

problem-solving before instruction (ps-i): a protocol for assessment and intervention in students with different abilities

Nowadays, how to encourage students' reflective thinking is one of the main concerns for teachers at various educational levels. Many students have difficulties when facing tasks that involve high levels of reflection, such as on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) courses. Many also have deep-rooted anxiety and demotivation towards such courses. In order to overcome these cognitive and affective challenges, researchers have suggested the use of "Problem-Solving before Instruction" (PS-I) approaches. PS-I consists of giving students the opportunity to generate individual solutions to problems that are later solved in class. These solutions are compared with the canonical solution in the following phase of instruction, together with the presentation of the lesson content. It has been suggested that with this approach students can increase their conceptual understanding, transfer their learning to different tasks and contexts, become more aware of the gaps in their knowledge, and generate a personal construct of previous knowledge that can help maintain their motivation. Despite the advantages, this approach has been criticized, as students might spend a lot of time on aimless trial and error during the initial phase of solution generation or they may even feel frustrated in this process, which might be detrimental to future learning. More importantly, there is little research about how pre-existing student characteristics can help them to benefit (or not) from this approach. The aim of the current study is to present the design and implementation of the PS-I approach applied to statistics learning in undergraduate students, as well as a methodological approach used to evaluate its efficacy considering students' pre-existing differences.

This protocol was satisfactorily implemented in a previous study23, with the exception of the measures of students&#39; predispositions in terms of their sense of competence, mastery approach goals, metacognition, and divergent thinking.
To address these predispositions, this protocol includes measures that have been previously validated and that have shown high levels of reliability (Table 1).
Typical solutions generated by ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Problem-Solving Before Instruction PS-I: A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities at JoVE.com

Problem-Solving Before Instruction PS-I: A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities

This protocol guides researchers and educators through implementation of the Problem-Solving before Instruction approach (PS-I) in an undergraduate statistics class. It also describes an embedded experimental evaluation of this implementation, where the efficacy of PS-I is measured in terms of learning and motivation in students with different cognitive and affective predispositions.

Problem-Solving Before Instruction (PS-I): A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities

Nowadays, how to encourage students' reflective thinking is one of the main concerns for teachers at various educational levels. Many students have ...

A great proportion of the students find learning and motivational problems in courses that require critical thinking. This protocol is significant because it provides educators and researchers with guidelines to implement an approach that can be effective to face this challenge, the problem-solving before instruction approach. This approach consists on:before explaining a concept in class, giving the students the opportunity to invent personal solutions in relation to that concept.Also, this protocol is significant because it makes accessible and experimental evaluation about the efficacy of problem-solving before instruction, integrating this evaluation with the real educational practice, and attending to the variability of a student in terms of capacities and motivational predispositions. The protocol is contextualized in a statistics class of variability. Concretely, the problem-solving before instruction condition consists in having students to invent variability measures before they receive instruction about this topic.One of the reasons why we think it's important to make accessible the problem-solving before instruction approach into the educational practice is that it can help promote critical thinking. It is an opportunity for the students to face novel problems and try to find creative solutions for these problems. Another reason is that this experience is compatible with the teaching of the content in class.Specifically, several studies suggest that inventing personal solutions in these series of problem can help the students to activate previous knowledge, to become more aware of the knowledge gaps, to feel more motivated, and finally, to account a higher understanding of the contents covered and to be able to transfer this understanding to different situations. Nevertheless, it is a great importance that we continue investigating about the efficacy of problem-solving before instruction, especially because its implementation can generate negative reactions in some students. For example, some students can feel over challenged or even frustrated with the different options to consider in this first invention task.It is especially important that we evaluate how our students with different cognitive and motivational predispositions can benefit more or less from this approach. The protocol can be just used as a guide for implementing the problem-solving before instruction approach. However, if the user is also interested in the experiment evaluation before implementing the protocol, it should be explained to students the ethical considerations.It is important to warranty their free consent to participate by explaining them that if they do not want to participate in the investigation, they can perform the learning activities with a handing them in. Inform about ethical considerations verbally and with a written informed consent, allowing students to keep a copy of the informed consent. If students are below legal age, a parental informed consent should be requested.To warranty the anonymity of the data, randomly assign students an arbitrary identification number. Ask students to complete the different assessment tool to measure the cognitive and motivational predispositions. This assessment will prevent on the interest of the researcher.Nevertheless, in the protocol, it's described a proposal to measure the predispositions of previous academic knowledge, motivational goals, sense of competence, divergent thinking abilities, and metacognitive regulation abilities. After this assessment, students will be assigned to two learning conditions, the problem solving before instruction condition in which they problem solve in relation to the target concept before receiving instruction. Under direct instruction condition in which they problem-solve only after receiving some instructions.Have the task books, containing the materials, for the two conditions properly prepared. In this protocol, the task book for the problem-solving before instruction condition contains two activities. First, the problem where students invent variability measures.Second, a worked sample providing instructions about variability measures in the context of this problem. The task book for the direct instruction condition also contains two activities. First, instruction through the work example.Second, a practice problem where students applied the contents learned. To prevent the students to see the contents of the second activity while they are performing the first activity, attach together the papers corresponding to the second activity. Randomly assign the two task books to the students of the class.The assignments should not depend on how students are seated. After having the students work for 15 minutes in their first assigned activity, give them another 15 minutes to work in their second assigned activity. All instructions are written in the task books.It is recommended that a teacher is available to guide the students. However, it is important that during the invention phase, the teacher does not give the students any clues about the conventional solution because it can shortcut the development of their personal ideas. To help students explore the problem from their into deep ideas, the problem is designed based on the technique of contrasting cases.It means the data of the program are presented with some refined examples that students can easily compare side by side in a way that each comparison differs only in one or few relevant characteristics. If students need help, the teacher can guide them through metacognitive prompt, such as asking them to explain what type of solution they are trying to do. And by helping them identify the goal of the program by providing them with examples of how to generating a general procedure.To compliment the learning of both learning conditions, provide instructions through a lecture. For the specific context of this protocol, there is a document including animations and instructions proposed for this lecture. At the end of the lesson, ask students to complete the assessment for the dependent variables of interest.In the protocol, there is a proposal to measure curiosity filled by students and three types of knowledge performance, procedural knowledge, conceptually knowledge, and task for knowledge. Code for the final score in each assessment. For the assessments proposed in this protocol, guidelines are provided in the coding of the data section.The identification number will be used to connect all assessment belonging to each student. Perform the analysis of interest. Different guidelines are provided in the analysis of the data section in this protocol for the programs, SPSS and PROCESS.This images show common responses to the invention problem solved by students in the problem-solving before instruction condition. None of these solutions correspond to the target concept of the standard deviation. However, they are partial solutions and reveal reflections about important conceptual aspects.In contrast, the solutions in the practice problems of the direct instruction condition are more homogeneous and aligned with the canonical concept of the standard deviation because students solved this problem after receiving instruction with the worked example. An interesting result from the experimental evaluation of the protocol is the comparison between the problem solving before instruction condition and the direct instruction condition for each dependent variable considered. It can provide information about the general efficacy of problem-solving before instruction.Also, it can be interesting to explore the process that can mediate the effect of problem-solving before instruction or learning or the moderating role of students with disposition in this effects. For example, a potential moderation result can be that the efficacy of problem-solving before instruction depends on the students'metacognitive abilities. According to this graph, the students who have hight metacognitive skills benefit more from problem-solving before instruction, while those students with low metacognitive skills benefit more from direct instruction.In conclusion, this protocol can be useful to make the problem-solving before instruction approach and experimental evaluation more accessible to educators and researchers. This protocol has three important advantage. First of all, its flexibility to be adapted to the different educational and research interests.Secondly, its easy integration with the normal educational practice, and finally, the experimental evaluation considers the variability of students with different cognitive and motivational profiles. Problem-solving before instruction is a technique that can help to promote critical thinking, motivation, and deep learning. Investigating about its efficacy in different types of students can help educators to take useful decisions about its general implementation in educational practice.

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Research

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Behavior

Automated, Quantitative Cognitive/Behavioral Screening of Mice: For Genetics, Pharmacology, Animal Cognition and Undergraduate Instruction

We describe a high-throughput, high-volume, fully automated, live-in 24/7 behavioral testing system for assessing the effects of genetic and pharmacological manipulations on basic mechanisms of cognition and learning in mice. A standard polypropylene mouse housing tub is connected through an acrylic tube to a standard commercial mouse test box. The test box has 3 hoppers, 2 of which are connected to pellet feeders. All are internally illuminable with an LED and monitored for head entries by infrared (IR) beams. Mice live in the environment, which eliminates handling during screening. They obtain their food during two or more daily feeding periods by performing in operant (instrumental) and Pavlovian (classical) protocols, for which we have written protocol-control software and quasi-real-time data analysis and graphing software. The data analysis and graphing routines are written in a MATLAB-based language created to simplify greatly the analysis of large time-stamped behavioral and physiological event records and to preserve a full data trail from raw data through all intermediate analyses to the published graphs and statistics within a single data structure. The data-analysis code harvests the data several times a day and subjects it to statistical and graphical analyses, which are automatically stored in the &#34;cloud&#34; and on in-lab computers. Thus, the progress of individual mice is visualized and quantified daily. The data-analysis code talks to the protocol-control code, permitting the automated advance from protocol to protocol of individual subjects. The behavioral protocols implemented are matching, autoshaping, timed hopper-switching, risk assessment in timed hopper-switching, impulsivity measurement, and the circadian anticipation of food availability. Open-source protocol-control and data-analysis code makes the addition of new protocols simple. Eight test environments fit in a 48 in x 24 in x 78 in&#160;cabinet; two such cabinets (16 environments) may be controlled by one computer.

Fully automated system for measuring physiologically meaningful properties of the mechanisms mediating spatial localization, temporal localization, duration, rate&#160;and probability estimation, risk assessment, impulsivity, and the accuracy and precision of memory, in order to assess the effects of genetic and pharmacological manipulations on foundational mechanisms of cognition in mice.

We describe a high-throughput, high-volume, fully automated, live-in 24/7 behavioral testing system for assessing the effects of genetic and ...

A Protocol for Housing Mice in an Enriched Environment

Environmental enrichment (EE) is a housing environment for mice that boosts mental and physical health compared to standard laboratory housing. Our recent studies demonstrate that environmental enrichment decreases adiposity, increases energy expenditure, resists diet induced obesity, and causes cancer remission and inhibition in mice. EE typically consists of larger living space, a variety of &#8216;toys&#8217; to interact with, running wheels, and can include a number of other novel environmental changes. All of this fosters a more complex social engagement, cognitive and physical stimulations. Importantly, the toy location and type of toy is changed regularly, which encourages the mice to adapt to a frequently changing and novel environment. Many variables can be manipulated in EE to promote health effects in mice. Thus these approaches are difficult to control and must be properly managed to successfully replicate the associated phenotypes. Therefore, the goal of this video is to demonstrate how EE is properly set up and maintained to assure a complex, challenging, and controlled environment so that other researchers can easily reproduce the protective effects of EE against obesity and cancer.

Environmental enrichment for mice requires a complex and challenging setup, as well as comprehensive husbandry and handling techniques to assure robust metabolic and anti-cancer effects in the mice. This protocol provides detailed procedures to reproduce the above mentioned effects in mice.

Environmental enrichment (EE) is a housing environment for mice that boosts mental and physical health compared to standard laboratory housing. Our recent ...

Wheel Running and Environmental Complexity as a Therapeutic Intervention in an Animal Model of FASD

Aerobic exercise (e.g., wheel running (WR) extensively used in animal research) positively impacts many measures of neuroplastic potential in the brain, such as rates of adult neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and expression of neurotrophic factors in rodents. This intervention has also been shown to mitigate behavioral and neuroanatomical aspects of the negative impacts of teratogens (i.e., developmental exposure to alcohol) and age-related neurodegeneration in rodents. Environmental complexity (EC) has been shown to produce numerous neuroplastic benefits in cortical and subcortical structures and can be coupled with wheel running to increase the proliferation and survival of new cells in the adult hippocampus. The combination of these two interventions provides a robust &#34;superintervention&#34; (WR-EC) that can be implemented in a range of rodent models of neurological disorders. We will discuss the implementation of WR/EC and its constituent interventions for use as a more powerful therapeutic intervention in rats using the animal model of prenatal exposure to alcohol in humans. We will also discuss which elements of the procedures are absolutely necessary for the interventions and which ones may be altered depending on the experimenter&#39;s question or facilities.

Cardiovascular exercise and stimulating experiences in a complex environment have positive benefits on multiple measures of neuroplasticity within the rodent brain. This article will discuss the implementation of these interventions as a &#34;superintervention&#34; which combines wheel running and environmental complexity and will address the limitations of these interventions.

Aerobic exercise (e.g., wheel running (WR) extensively used in animal research) positively impacts many measures of neuroplastic potential in the brain, ...

Ultrasound Images of the Tongue: A Tutorial for Assessment and Remediation of Speech Sound Errors

Diagnostic ultrasound imaging has been a common tool in medical practice for several decades. It provides a safe and effective method for imaging structures internal to the body. There has been a recent increase in the use of ultrasound technology to visualize the shape and movements of the tongue during speech, both in typical speakers and in clinical populations. Ultrasound imaging of speech has greatly expanded our understanding of how sounds articulated with the tongue (lingual sounds) are produced. Such information can be particularly valuable for speech-language pathologists. Among other advantages, ultrasound images can be used during speech therapy to provide (1) illustrative models of typical (i.e.&#160;&#34;correct&#34;) tongue configurations for speech sounds, and (2) a source of insight into the articulatory nature of deviant productions. The images can also be used as an additional source of feedback for clinical populations learning to distinguish their better productions from their incorrect productions, en route to establishing more effective articulatory habits.
Ultrasound feedback is increasingly used by scientists and clinicians as both the expertise of the users increases and as the expense of the equipment declines. In this tutorial, procedures are presented for collecting ultrasound images of the tongue in a clinical context. We illustrate these procedures in an extended example featuring one common error sound, American English /r/. Images of correct and distorted /r/ are used to demonstrate (1) how to interpret ultrasound images, (2) how to assess tongue shape during production of speech sounds, (3), how to categorize tongue shape errors, and (4), how to provide visual feedback to elicit a more appropriate and functional tongue shape. We present a sample protocol for using real-time ultrasound images of the tongue for visual feedback to remediate speech sound errors. Additionally, example data are shown to illustrate outcomes with the procedure.

Ultrasound imaging can be used to display the shape and movements of the tongue in real time during speech. The images can be used to determine the nature of speech sound errors. Visual feedback of the tongue can be used to facilitate improvements in speech sound production in clinical populations.

Diagnostic ultrasound imaging has been a common tool in medical practice for several decades. It provides a safe and effective method for imaging ...

Investigating the Deployment of Visual Attention Before Accurate and Averaging Saccades via Eye Tracking and Assessment of Visual Sensitivity

This experimental protocol was designed to investigate whether visual attention is obligatorily deployed at the endpoint of saccades. To this end, we recorded the eye position of human participants engaged in a saccade task via eye tracking and assessed visual orientation discrimination performance at various locations during saccade preparation. Importantly, instead of using a single saccade target paradigm for which the saccade endpoint typically coincides roughly with the target, this protocol comprised the presentation of two nearby saccade targets, leading to a distinct spatial dissociation between target locations and saccade endpoint on a substantial number of trials. The paradigm allowed us to compare presaccadic visual discrimination performance at the endpoint of accurate saccades (landing at one of the saccade targets) and of averaging saccades (landing at an intermediate location in between the two targets). We observed a selective enhancement of visual sensitivity at the endpoint of accurate saccades but not at the endpoint of averaging saccades. Rather, before the execution of averaging saccades, visual sensitivity was equally enhanced at both targets, suggesting that saccade averaging follows from unresolved attentional selection among the saccade targets. These results argue against a mandatory coupling between visual attention and saccade programming based on a direct measure of presaccadic visual sensitivity rather than saccadic reaction times, which have been used in other protocols to draw similar conclusions. While our protocol provides a useful framework to investigate the relationship between visual attention and saccadic eye movements at the behavioral level, it can also be combined with electrophysiological measures to extend insights at the neuronal level.

This experimental protocol combined eye tracking and the assessment of presaccadic visual sensitivity in a dual task paradigm, consisting of a free choice saccade task and a visual discrimination task, to investigate the deployment of visual spatial attention before both, accurate and averaging saccades.

This experimental protocol was designed to investigate whether visual attention is obligatorily deployed at the endpoint of saccades. To this end, we ...

Measuring the Functional Abilities of Children Aged 3-6 Years Old with Observational Methods and Computer Tools

The analysis of functional abilities and their development in early childhood (0-6 years old) are fundamental aspects among young children with certain types of developmental difficulties that can facilitate prevention, through programmed interventions adapted to the needs of each user (student or patient). There are, however, few investigations to date, that have analyzed the use of automated tools for recording and interpreting the results of the initial assessment. Here, a protocol is presented to examine the functional abilities in early childhood in young children, aged between 3-6 years old, with intellectual disabilities, but the protocol can also be used for ages 0 to 6 years. The protocol makes use of a computer application, eEarlyCare, that facilitates the interpretation of the results of systematic observations, which are recorded in natural environments by professionals trained in early intervention. The software can be used to analyze 11 functional areas (Food Autonomy, Personal Care and Hygiene, Dressing and Undressing Independently, Sphincter Control, Functional Mobility, Communication and Language, Daily Life Routines, Adaptive Behavior and Attention) and a total of 114 different behaviors. Its use facilitates the analysis of the observed abilities and greatly assists early intervention. Compared to other observational methods, it allows a more efficient use of personal and material resources. The use of the computer application facilitates the recording of the observation results, which helps with organization and reflection on the observations. The software displays the observation results on-screen compared to normal developmental parameters. This information can be referred to for decision-making about the most suitable intervention program for each user (student or patient). Likewise, clustering techniques are applied to analyze the relation between the type of intellectual disabilities and functional development identified with the software, a relation that is intended to serve as a guide for early-care professional intervention.

We present a protocol to use a computational tool to record and analyze the functional abilities of children aged 3-6 years old. The protocol facilitates the comparison of these abilities throughout their development and can be used to assess developmental difficulties.

The analysis of functional abilities and their development in early childhood (0-6 years old) are fundamental aspects among young children with certain ...

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations for their chronological age in the areas of reading, writing, and/or mathematics. Each of the disorders making up the LDs involve different deficits; however, some commonalities can be found within that heterogeneity, such in terms of learning self-regulation and metacognition. Unlike in early ages and later educational levels, there are hardly any evidence-based evaluation protocols for adults with LDs. LDs influence academic performance but also have serious consequences in professional, social, and family contexts. In response to this, the current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs. The assessment is carried out through analysis of the on-line learning process using a variety methods, techniques, and sensors (e.g., eye tracking, facial expressions of emotion, physiological responses, concurrent verbalizations, log files, screen recordings of human-machine interactions) and off-line methods (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, and self-report measures). This theoretically-driven and empirically-based guideline aims to provide an accurate assessment of LDs in adulthood in order to design effective prevention and intervention proposals.

The current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs.

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations ...

Examining Changes in HRV and Emotion Following Artmaking with Three Different Art Materials

This protocol enables the examination of psychological and physiological responses to different types of behavioral engagements. Specifically, in this study example, the emotional response and changes in heart rate variability are examined in response to artmaking with three different art materials that vary in their levels of fluidity. This protocol can be adapted to examine other types of behavior or engagement in artmaking with other materials. There are several benefits to using this protocol. Firstly, the order randomization of the materials improves the probability that the response measured is associated with its qualities and not the order of presentation. Secondly, the continuous measuring of electrocardiogram enables the examination of changes in heart rate variability after engagement with each art material and changes that might occur during the artmaking itself. The advantages of this protocol should be considered with their limitations. The music listening is before each art making session; thus, the return to baseline can only be measured in the first two conditions. The return to baseline provides information on how fast individuals recover after response to working with each of the materials. Furthermore, a more liquid material instead of gouache paint with a brush, such as finger paints, provides more difference between materials. Finally, this protocol can be adapted to specific research needs.

The goal of the protocol is to guide researchers in conducting experiments that are intended to measure changes in self-reported emotional response and heart rate variability following art making with different materials. The protocol can easily be adapted for use in a variety of behavioral conditions and activities.

This protocol enables the examination of psychological and physiological responses to different types of behavioral engagements. Specifically, in this ...

The Use of Traditional Fear Tests to Evaluate Different Emotional Circuits in Cattle

Animal temperament is complex and has implications for productivity and economic profitability. Quantifying an animal&#39;s response to differing stimuli may facilitate breeding selections and identify animals that are better suited to specific management strategies. Multiple tests have been developed to evaluate cattle temperament (e.g., exit velocity, chute score, pen score, open field test, startle test, bovine zero maze), but each of these tests evaluates the animal&#39;s response to different stimuli (e.g., isolation, novel environment, startle, willingness to enter an enclosed area). Cattle temperament has been observed to be relatively stable over time. However, the evaluation of temperament has the potential to be influenced by current conditions, previous experiences, and observer bias. Many of these temperament tests have been improperly categorized as fear tests and have also been criticized for being subjective. This paper provides a framework for standardizing behavioral tests for cattle and suggests that these different evaluations assess different aspects of the animal&#39;s overall temperament.

Here, we present a protocol to conduct a variety of behavioral tests in cattle that have been designed to evaluate emotions. A battery of behavioral tests (open field test, startle test, bovine zero maze, exit velocity, pen score, and chute score) were conducted to evaluate different components of animal temperament.

Animal temperament is complex and has implications for productivity and economic profitability. Quantifying an animal&#39;s response to differing stimuli ...

Lower-Limb Biomechanical Characteristics Associated with Unplanned Gait Termination Under Different Walking Speeds

Gait termination caused by unexpected stimulus is a common occurrence in everyday life. This study presents a protocol to investigate the lower-limb biomechanical changes that occur during unplanned gait termination (UGT) under different walking speeds. Fifteen male participants were asked to perform UGT on a walkway at normal walking speed (NWS) and fast walking speed (FWS), respectively. A motion analysis system and plantar pressure platform were applied to collect lower-limb kinematic and plantar pressure data. Paired-sampled T-test was used to examine the differences in lower-limb kinematics and plantar pressure data between two walking speeds. The results showed larger range of motion in the hip, knee, and ankle joints in the sagittal plane as well as plantar pressure in forefoot and heel regions during UGT at FWS when compared with NWS. With the increase in walking speed, subjects exhibited different lower-limb biomechanical characteristics that show FWS associated with greater potential injury risks.

This study compared the biomechanical characteristics of the lower extremity during unplanned gait termination under different walking speeds. The lower-limb kinematic and kinetic data from fifteen subjects with normal and fast walking speeds were collected using a motion analysis system and plantar pressure platform.

Gait termination caused by unexpected stimulus is a common occurrence in everyday life. This study presents a protocol to investigate the lower-limb ...