Name: kinetic screening of nuclease activity using nucleic acid probes
Uploaded: 2019-11-01T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Kinetic Screening of Nuclease Activity using Nucleic Acid Probes at JoVE.com

The authors would like to acknowledge Luiza I. Hernandez (Link&#246;ping University) for her careful revision of the manuscript and valuable advice. This work was supported by The Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation and The Swedish Government Strategic Research Area in Materials Science on Advanced Functional Materials at Link&#246;ping University (Faculty Grant SFO-Mat-LiU No. 2009-00971).

1. Oligonucleotide library design and preparation
<ol>
	<li>Library design
	<ol>
		<li>Based on the following criteria design a library of quenched fluorescent oligonucleotide probes between 8 and 12-mer long to avoid secondary structure formation, with equal length for all probes.
		<ol>
			<li>Include at least one DNA and one RNA random sequence containing a combination of adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)/uracil (U) (DNA and RNA probes in Table 1). 
			NOTE: The DNA and RNA...

<ol>
	<li>Yang, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nucleases:+diversity+of+structure,+function+and+mechanism.">Nucleases: diversity of structure, function and mechanism.</a> Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics. 44 (1), 1-93 (2011).</li><li>Adli, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+CRISPR+tool+kit+for+genome+editing+and+beyond.">The CRISPR tool kit for genome editing and beyond.</a> Nature Communication. 9 (1), 1911 (2018).</li><li>Mason, P. A., Cox, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+DNA+exonucleases+in+protecting+genome+stability+and+their+impact+on+ageing.">The role of DNA exonucleases in protecting genome stability and their impact on ageing.</a> Age (Dordr). 34 (6), 1317-1340 (2012).</li><li>Berends, E. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclease+expression+by+Staphylococcus+aureus+facilitates+escape+from+neutrophil+extracellular+traps.">Nuclease expression by Staphylococcus aureus facilitates escape from neutrophil extracellular traps.</a> Journal of Innate Immunity. 2 (6), 576-586 (2010).</li><li>Kiedrowski, M. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Staphylococcus+aureus+Nuc2+is+a+functional,+surface-attached+extracellular+nuclease.">Staphylococcus aureus Nuc2 is a functional, surface-attached extracellular nuclease.</a> PLoS One. 9 (4), 95574 (2014).</li><li>Morita, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+wall-anchored+nuclease+of+Streptococcus+sanguinis+contributes+to+escape+from+neutrophil+extracellular+trap-mediated+bacteriocidal+activity.">Cell wall-anchored nuclease of Streptococcus sanguinis contributes to escape from neutrophil extracellular trap-mediated bacteriocidal activity.</a> PLoS One. 9 (8), 103125 (2014).</li><li>Hasegawa, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+a+virulence-associated+and+cell-wall-located+DNase+of+Streptococcus+pyogenes.">Characterization of a virulence-associated and cell-wall-located DNase of Streptococcus pyogenes.</a> Microbiology. 156, 184-190 (2010).</li><li>Moon, A. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+insights+into+catalytic+and+substrate+binding+mechanisms+of+the+strategic+EndA+nuclease+from+Streptococcus+pneumoniae.">Structural insights into catalytic and substrate binding mechanisms of the strategic EndA nuclease from Streptococcus pneumoniae.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 39 (7), 2943-2953 (2011).</li><li>Li, L. Y., Luo, X., Wang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endonuclease+G+is+an+apoptotic+DNase+when+released+from+mitochondria.">Endonuclease G is an apoptotic DNase when released from mitochondria.</a> Nature. 412 (6842), 95-99 (2001).</li><li>McDermott-Roe, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endonuclease+G+is+a+novel+determinant+of+cardiac+hypertrophy+and+mitochondrial+function.">Endonuclease G is a novel determinant of cardiac hypertrophy and mitochondrial function.</a> Nature. 478 (7367), 114-118 (2011).</li><li>Wang, Y. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+link+between+adipogenesis+and+innate+immunity:+RNase-L+promotes+3T3-L1+adipogenesis+by+destabilizing+Pref-1+mRNA.">A link between adipogenesis and innate immunity: RNase-L promotes 3T3-L1 adipogenesis by destabilizing Pref-1 mRNA.</a> Cell Death &amp; Disease. 7 (11), 2458 (2016).</li><li>Li, C. L., Yang, W. Z., Shi, Z., Yuan, H. 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I., Ozalp, V. C., Hernandez, F. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclease+activity+as+a+specific+biomarker+for+breast+cancer.">Nuclease activity as a specific biomarker for breast cancer.</a> Chemical Communication (Cambridge). 52 (83), 12346-12349 (2016).</li><li>Machado, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+and+specific+detection+of+Salmonella+infections+using+chemically+modified+nucleic+acid+probes.">Rapid and specific detection of Salmonella infections using chemically modified nucleic acid probes.</a> Analytica Chimica Acta. 1054, 157-166 (2019).</li><li>Sanders, E. 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Alterations of nuclease activity have been associated with a wide variety of disease phenotypes, including different types of cancer and bacterial infections. These alterations are proposed to be the causative agent of a condition14, while in other cases they are the consequence of a detrimental physiological event20 or pathogenic agent16,26. Not surprisingly, attempts to use nucleases and nuclease activity as a dia...

Nucleases are a class of enzymes capable of cleaving the phosphodiester bonds that form the backbone structure of nucleic acid molecules. The vast diversity of nucleases makes their classification rather difficult. However, there are some common criteria used to describe nucleases, such as substrate preference (deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA)), cleavage site (endonucleases or exonucleases), or metal ion dependency, among others1. Nucleases are highly conserved catalytic enzymes that have fundamental roles in both, prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and have been used, and continue to be used, as gene editing tools2. They are also fundamental actors in DNA maintenance and replication, helping to keep genome stability and participating in proof-reading processes3. In bacteria, for example, nucleases have been identified as important virulence factors, able to promote bacterial survival by reducing the efficacy of the host&#39;s immune system4,5,6,7,8. In mammals, nucleases have been suggested to be implicated in apoptosis9, mitochondrial biogenesis and maintenance10 and mediation of antibacterial and antiviral innate immune responses11. Not surprisingly, nuclease activity alterations, whether enhancement or lack of, have been implicated in a wide array of human diseases. These diseases range from a wide variety of cancers12,13 to cardiac hypertrophy10 or autoimmune diseases14. Therefore, nucleases have become interesting candidates as biomarkers for a heterogeneous group of human conditions. In fact, nucleases have already shown their potential as successful diagnostic tools for the detection of infections caused by specific bacterial agents, such as Staphylococcus aureus or Escherichia coli15,16. In many cancer types, expression of staphylococcal nuclease domain-containing protein 1 (SND1) ribonuclease is indicative of poor prognosis17. In pancreatic cancer patients, elevated ribonuclease I (RNase I) serum levels have been reported18 and proposed to be associated with cancerous cell phenotypes19. In ischemic heart conditions, such as myocardial infarction or unstable angina pectoris, deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) serum levels have been shown to be a valid diagnostic marker20,21.
It has been hypothesized that the global blueprint of nuclease activity may be different in healthy and disease states. In fact, recent reports have used differences in nuclease activity to distinguish between healthy and cancerous phenotypes22 or to identify pathogenic bacterial infections in a species-specific manner15,23. These findings have opened a new avenue for the use of nucleases as biomarkers of disease. Therefore, there exists a necessity for the development of a comprehensive screening method able to systematically identify disease associated differences in nuclease activity, which may be of key importance in the development of new diagnostic tools.
Herein, we introduce and describe a new in vitro screening approach (Figure 1) to identify sensitive and specific probes capable of discriminating between nuclease activity in healthy and unhealthy, or activity specific to a type of cell or bacteria. Taking advantage of the modularity of nucleic acids, we designed an initial library of quenched fluorescent oligonucleotide probes consisting of a comprehensive set of different sequences and chemistries, both being important parameters for library design. These oligonucleotide probes are flanked by a fluorophore (fluorescein amidite, FAM) and a quencher (tide quencher 2, TQ2) at the 5&#39; and 3&#39; ends respectively (Table 1). By using this fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) based fluorometric assay to measure the kinetics of enzymatic degradation, we were able to identify candidate probes with the potential to discriminate differential patterns of nuclease activity associated with healthy or disease states. We designed an iterative process, in which new libraries are created based on the best candidate probes, that allows the identification of ever more specific candidate probes in subsequent screening steps. Moreover, this approach takes advantage of the catalytic nature of nucleases to increase sensitivity. This is achieved by taking advantage of the activatable nature of the reporter probes and the ability of nucleases to continually process substrate molecules, both representing key advantages over alternative antibody or small molecule-based screening methods.
This approach offers a highly modular, flexible and easy to implement screening tool for the identification of specific nucleic acid probes capable of discriminating between healthy and disease states, and an excellent platform for the development of new diagnostic tools that can be adapted for future clinical applications. As such, this approach was used to identify the nuclease activity derived from Salmonella Typhimurium (herein referred to as Salmonella) for the specific identification of this bacteria. In the following protocol, we report on a method to screen for bacterial nuclease activity using kinetic analysis.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:759px;" width="759">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Black bottom, non-treated 96 well plate</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">10000631</td>
			<td style="width:88px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Cytation1</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">BioTek</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">CYT1FAV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Eppendorf tubes</td>
			<td>Thermofisher</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">11926955</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Escherichia coli</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">25922</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Microbank cryogenic storage vial containing beads</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Pro-Lab Diagnostics</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">22-286-155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Nucleic acid probes</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Biomers.net</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">#</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;">Phosphate Buffer Saline containing MgCl2 and CaCl2</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Gibco&#8482;</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">14040117</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Salmonella enterica subs. Enterica</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">14028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;">Tris-EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">10647633</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Tryptone Soya Agar with defibrinated sheep blood</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">10362223</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:39px;width:344px;">Tryptic Soy Broth</td>
			<td style="width:199px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:128px;">22092</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

kinetic screening of nuclease activity using nucleic acid probes

Nucleases are a class of enzymes that break down nucleic acids by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds that link the ribose sugars. Nucleases display a variety of vital physiological roles in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, ranging from maintaining genome stability to providing protection against pathogens. Altered nuclease activity has been associated with several pathological conditions including bacterial infections and cancer. To this end, nuclease activity has shown great potential to be exploited as a specific biomarker. However, a robust and reproducible screening method based on this activity remains highly desirable.
Herein, we introduce a method that enables screening for nuclease activity using nucleic acid probes as substrates, with the scope of differentiating between pathological and healthy conditions. This method offers the possibility of designing new probe libraries, with increasing specificity, in an iterative manner. Thus, multiple rounds of screening are necessary to refine the probes&#39; design with enhanced features, taking advantage of the availability of chemically modified nucleic acids. The considerable potential of the proposed technology lies in its flexibility, high reproducibility, and versatility for the screening of nuclease activity associated with disease conditions. It is expected that this technology will allow the development of promising diagnostic tools with a great potential in the clinic.

Figure 1 shows the work flow of this methodology, which is divided into two screening rounds. In the first round of screening, we used 5 DNA probes (DNA, DNA Poly A, DNA Poly T, DNA Poly C and DNA Poly G) and also 5 RNA probes (RNA, RNA Poly A, RNA Poly U RNA Poly C and RNA Poly G). The raw data of this screening round can be found in Supplementary Table 1. In the second round, chemically modified probes were synthesized by replacing the RNA sequence with chemically modified...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Kinetic Screening of Nuclease Activity using Nucleic Acid Probes at JoVE.com

Kinetic Screening of Nuclease Activity using Nucleic Acid Probes

Altered nuclease activity has been associated with different human conditions, underlying its potential as a biomarker. The modular and easy to implement screening methodology presented in this paper allows the selection of specific nucleic acid probes for harnessing nuclease activity as a biomarker of disease.

Nucleases are a class of enzymes that break down nucleic acids by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds that link the ribose sugars. ...

This protocol provides a powerful alternative for screening nuclease activity as biomarker of disease, with an easy-to-implement methodology even for researchers who are not as specialized in nucleic acid probes. The main advantage of this technique is the ability to select nucleic acid probes that can identify both known and unknown nuclease activities, taking advantage of the probe-nuclease dynamic interaction. Other advantages of this methodology are its flexibility, high reproducibility and ease of use.The demonstration will be performed by Khadija, a Masters student, and Baris, a postdoc from our laboratory. When designing an oligonucleotide library, include at least one DNA and one RNA random sequence containing a combination of adenine, guanine, cytosine and thiamine or uracil. To prepare the oligonucleotide probes, spin down the lyophilized oligonucleotide probes and dilute each probe in Tris-EDTA buffer at a 500 picomolar per microliter concentration to prevent nuclease degradation.For bacterial culture on solid medium, roll a single porous glass bead from cryogenic storage directly onto one culture dish containing TSA supplemented with defibrinated sheep blood to streak out individual bacterial colonies. Then place the plate at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours. For bacterial culture in liquid medium, transfer a single colony from a solid medium culture to 50 milliliters of TSB for incubation at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours at 200 rotations per minute.The next day, dilute the culture at a one to 500 ratio in fresh TSB and incubate the bacteria for an additional 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius and 200 rotations per minute in a shaking incubator. To set up a nuclease activity assay, first pre-warm a fluorometer to 37 degrees Celsius and carefully add 96 microliters of sterile TSB or supernatant from a Salmonella or E.Coli liquid medium culture to one 1.5 milliliter nuclease-free microcentrifuge tube per probe. Add four microliters of probe working solution to each tube and use a pipette to thoroughly mix each tube contents until homogenous solutions are achieved, taking care to avoid bubbles.Next, carefully load 95 microliters of each solution close to the wall of individual wells of a black bottom, non-treated 96 well plate, taking care to avoid bubbles. When all of the solutions have been added, cover the plate and visually inspect the lid for pen markings or dust that may introduce measurement artifacts. To set up the software for nuclease activity measurement, open a suitable acquisition software program.Select Read Now from the Task Manager window, and select New to create the kinetic measurement protocol. Click Set Temperature to select 37 degrees Celsius and confirm and save the settings by clicking OK.Click Start Kinetics. In the pop-up window, select two hours in the Run Time input box and two minutes in the interval input box before clicking OK to confirm and save the settings.Click Read. In the pop-up window, select Fluorescence intensity as the Detection Method, Endpoint Kinetic as the Read Type and Filters as the Optics Type. Then click OK.In the pop-up window, select Green from the Filter Set and click OK.In the Procedure window, select Use lid and click Validate.A pop-up window will appear confirming that the created protocol is valid. Under the Protocol menu, select Procedure. In the Procedure window, define the wells to be measured and enter the name of the experiment in the File name input box.Then load the plate into the plate reader, taking care that the plate is in the right orientation and click the Read New button to begin the acquisition. For data analysis, open the data in the appropriate analysis software, and select one of the measured wells in the plate one window. Click Select Wells and include all of the measured wells in the Well Selection Dialog window before clicking OK.Then select Data in the plate one window to visualize the tabulated results and click QuickExport to export the data to a spreadsheet.In a spreadsheet, label the data columns as appropriate for each sample and probe, and plot the relative fluorescence units versus time for the data to generate kinetic graphs. In this representative experiment, after the first round of screening, the Salmonella culture supernatants reported a clear preference for RNA probes over the DNA probes. Based on the identification of RNA as the preferred nucleic acid type by Salmonella nucleases, a new RNA-only library is designed to be used in the second round of screening.In contrast, E.Coli in culture medium controls demonstrated a very limited ability to degrade RNA probes. After a second round of screening using chemically-modified nucleotides aimed at increasing the specificity of the RNA probes, RNA pyrimidine 2'O-methyl and RNA purine 2'O-methyl could be identified on the basis of their chemical modifications as exhibiting the best performing kinetic behavior when compared with the RNA pyrimidine 2'fluoro and RNA purine 2'fluoro respectively. These results suggest that Salmonella has an important RNAse activity with differential substrate chemistry preference that can be used for selecting probes capable of specifically recognizing this bacteria.This procedure enables the selection of probes that are able to identify nuclease activities associated with disease conditions, such as cancer or bacterial infection, allowing the development of novel clinical diagnostic tools.

kinetic-screening-of-nuclease-activity-using-nucleic-acid-probes

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

A Polyaniline-based Sensor of Nucleic Acids

Detection of nucleic acids is at the center of diagnostic technologies used in research and the clinic. Standard approaches used in these technologies rely on enzymatic modification that can introduce bias and artifacts. A critical element of next generation detection platforms will be direct molecular sensing, thereby avoiding a need for amplification or labels. Advanced nanomaterials may provide the suitable chemical modalities to realize label-free sensors. Conjugated polymers are ideal for biological sensing, possessing properties compatible with biomolecules and exhibit high sensitivity to localized environmental changes. In this article, a method is presented for detecting nucleic acids using the electroconductive polymer polyaniline. Simple DNA "probe" oligonucleotides complementary to target nucleic acids are attached electrostatically to the polymer, creating a sensor system that can differentiate single nucleotide differences in target molecules. Outside the specific and unbiased nature of this technology, it is highly cost effective.

Nucleic acids are common analytes for assessing biological systems; however, bias from enzymatic manipulation can cause concern. Here a method is described for label-free detection of nucleic acids using polyaniline. This sensitive, cost-effective sensor technology can distinguish single nucleotide differences between molecules.

Detection of nucleic acids is at the center of diagnostic technologies used in research and the clinic. Standard approaches used in these technologies ...

Preparation and In Vivo Use of an Activity-based Probe for N-acylethanolamine Acid Amidase

Activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) is a method for the identification of an enzyme of interest in a complex proteome through the use of a chemical probe that targets the enzyme&#39;s active sites. A reporter tag introduced into the probe allows for the detection of the labeled enzyme by in-gel fluorescence scanning, protein blot, fluorescence microscopy, or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Here, we describe the preparation and use of the compound ARN14686, a click chemistry activity-based probe (CC-ABP) that selectively recognizes the enzyme N-acylethanolamine acid amidase (NAAA). NAAA is a cysteine hydrolase that promotes inflammation by deactivating endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-alpha agonists such as palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA). NAAA is synthesized as an inactive full-length proenzyme, which is activated by autoproteolysis in the acidic pH of the lysosome. Localization studies have shown that NAAA is predominantly expressed in macrophages and other monocyte-derived cells, as well as in B-lymphocytes. We provide examples of how ARN14686 can be used to detect and quantify active NAAA ex vivo in rodent tissues by protein blot and fluorescence microscopy.

Preparation and In Vivo Use of an Activity-based Probe for N-acylethanolamine Acid Amidase

Here, we describe the preparation and use of an activity-based probe (ARN14686, undec-10-ynyl-N-[(3S)-2-oxoazetidin-3-yl]carbamate) that allows for the detection and quantification of the active form of the proinflammatory enzyme N-acylethanolamine acid amidase (NAAA), both in vitro and ex vivo.

Activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) is a method for the identification of an enzyme of interest in a complex proteome through the use of a chemical ...

Anaerobic Protein Purification and Kinetic Analysis via Oxygen Electrode for Studying DesB Dioxygenase Activity and Inhibition

Oxygen-sensitive proteins, including those enzymes which utilize oxygen as a substrate, can have reduced stability when purified using traditional aerobic purification methods. This manuscript illustrates the technical details involved in the anaerobic purification process, including the preparation of buffers and reagents, the methods for column chromatography in a glove box, and the desalting of the protein prior to kinetics. Also described are the methods for preparing and using an oxygen electrode to perform kinetic characterization of an oxygen-utilizing enzyme. These methods are illustrated using the dioxygenase enzyme DesB, a gallate dioxygenase from the bacterium Sphingobium sp. strain SYK-6.

Here we present a protocol for anaerobic protein purification, anaerobic protein concentration, and subsequent kinetic characterization using an oxygen electrode system. The method is illustrated using the enzyme DesB, a dioxygenase enzyme which is more stable and active when purified and stored in an anaerobic environment.

Oxygen-sensitive proteins, including those enzymes which utilize oxygen as a substrate, can have reduced stability when purified using traditional aerobic ...

Expression and Purification of Nuclease-Free Oxygen Scavenger Protocatechuate 3,4-Dioxygenase

Single molecule (SM) microscopy is used in the study of dynamic molecular interactions of fluorophore labeled biomolecules in real time. However, fluorophores are prone to loss of signal via photobleaching by dissolved oxygen (O2). To prevent photobleaching and extend the fluorophore lifetime, oxygen scavenging systems (OSS) are employed to reduce O2. Commercially available OSS may be contaminated by nucleases that damage or degrade nucleic acids, confounding interpretation of experimental results. Here we detail a protocol for the expression and purification of highly active Pseudomonas putida protocatechuate-3,4-dioxygenase (PCD) with no detectable nuclease contamination. PCD can efficiently remove reactive O2 species by conversion of the substrate protocatechuic acid (PCA) to 3-carboxy-cis,cis-muconic acid. This method can be used in any aqueous system where O2 plays a detrimental role in data acquisition. This method is effective in producing highly active, nuclease free PCD in comparison with commercially available PCD.

Protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase (PCD) can enzymatically remove free diatomic oxygen from an aqueous system using its substrate protocatechuic acid (PCA). This protocol describes the expression, purification, and activity analysis of this oxygen scavenging enzyme.

Single molecule (SM) microscopy is used in the study of dynamic molecular interactions of fluorophore labeled biomolecules in real time. However, ...

Estimation of Plant Biomass Lignin Content using Thioglycolic Acid (TGA)

Lignin is a natural polymer that is the second most abundant polymer on Earth after cellulose. Lignin is mainly deposited in plant secondary cell walls and is an aromatic heteropolymer primarily composed of three monolignols with significant industrial importance. Lignin plays an important role in plant growth and development, protects&#160;from biotic and abiotic stresses, and in the quality of animal fodder, the wood, and industrial lignin products. Accurate estimation of lignin content is essential for both fundamental understanding of the lignin biosynthesis and industrial applications of biomass. The thioglycolic acid (TGA) method is a highly reliable method of estimating the total lignin content in the plant biomass. This method estimates the lignin content by forming thioethers with the benzyl alcohol groups of lignin, which are soluble in alkaline conditions and insoluble in acidic conditions. The total lignin content is estimated using a standard curve generated from commercial bamboo lignin.

Estimation of Plant Biomass Lignin Content using Thioglycolic Acid TGA

Here, we present a modified TGA method for estimation of lignin content in herbaceous plant biomass. This method estimates the lignin content by forming specific thioether bonds with lignin and presents an advantage over the Klason method, as it requires a relatively small sample for lignin content estimation.

Lignin is a natural polymer that is the second most abundant polymer on Earth after cellulose. Lignin is mainly deposited in plant secondary cell walls ...

Making Precise and Accurate Single-Molecule FRET Measurements using the Open-Source smfBox

The smfBox is a recently developed cost-effective, open-source instrument for single-molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET), which makes measurements on freely diffusing biomolecules more accessible. This overview includes a step-by-step protocol for using this instrument to make measurements of precise FRET efficiencies in duplex DNA samples, including details of the sample preparation, instrument setup and alignment, data acquisition, and complete analysis routines. The presented approach, which includes how to determine all the correction factors required for accurate FRET-derived distance measurements, builds on a large body of recent collaborative work across the FRET Community, which aims to establish standard protocols and analysis approaches. This protocol, which is easily adaptable to a range of biomolecular systems, adds to the growing efforts in democratising smFRET for the wider scientific community.

This article provides step-by-step instructions for making fully-corrected accurate FRET measurements on individual, freely diffusing biomolecules using the open-source, inexpensive smfBox, from switch on, through alignment and focusing, to data collection and analysis.

The smfBox is a recently developed cost-effective, open-source instrument for single-molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET), which makes ...

Determining the Thermodynamic and Kinetic Association of a DNA Aptamer and Tetracycline Using Isothermal Titration Calorimetry

The determination of binding affinity and behavior between an aptamer and its target is the most crucial step in selecting and using an aptamer for application. Due to the drastic differences between the aptamer and small molecules, scientists need to put much effort into characterizing their binding properties. Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) is a powerful approach for this purpose. ITC goes beyond determining disassociation constants (Kd) and can provide the enthalpy changes and binding stoichiometry of the interaction between two molecules in the solution phase. This approach conducts continuous titration using label-free molecules and records released heat over time upon the binding events produced by each titration, so the process can sensitively measure the binding between macromolecules and their small targets. Herein, the article introduces a step-by-step procedure of the ITC measurement of a selected aptamer with a small target, tetracycline. This example proves the versatility of the technique and its potential for other applications.

The present protocol describes the use of Isothermal Titration Calorimetry (ITC) to analyze the association and dissociation kinetics of the binding between a DNA aptamer and tetracycline, including sample preparation, running standards and samples, and interpreting the resulting data.

The determination of binding affinity and behavior between an aptamer and its target is the most crucial step in selecting and using an aptamer for ...

Identifying G-Quadruplexes in a DNA Template Using Chemical Mapping

In Vitro Chemical Mapping of G-Quadruplex DNA Structures by Bis-3-Chloropiperidines

G-quadruplexes (G4s) are biologically relevant, non-canonical DNA structures that play an important role in gene expression and diseases, representing significant therapeutic targets. Accessible methods are required for the in vitro characterization of DNA within potential G-quadruplex-forming sequences (PQSs). B-CePs are a class of alkylating agents that have proven to be useful chemical probes for investigation of the higher-order structure of nucleic acids. This paper describes a new chemical mapping assay exploiting the specific reactivity of B-CePs with the N7 of guanines, followed by direct strand cleavage at the alkylated Gs. 
Namely, to distinguish G4 folds from unfolded DNA forms, we use B-CeP 1 to probe the thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA), a 15-mer DNA able to assume the G4 arrangement. Reaction of B-CeP-responding guanines with B-CeP 1 yields products that can be resolved by high-resolution polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) at a single-nucleotide level by locating individual alkylation adducts and DNA strand cleavage at the alkylated guanines. Mapping using B-CePs is a simple and powerful tool for the in vitro characterization of G-quadruplex-forming DNA sequences, enabling the precise location of guanines involved in the formation of G-tetrads.

Author Spotlight: Characterizing DNA G-Quadruplex by Bis-3-Chloropiperidine Based Chemical Mapping 

Bis-3-chloropiperidines (B-CePs) are useful chemical probes to identify and characterize G-quadruplex structures in DNA templates in vitro. This protocol details the procedure to perform probing reactions with B-CePs and to resolve reaction products by high-resolution polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

G-quadruplexes (G4s) are biologically relevant, non-canonical DNA structures that play an important role in gene expression and diseases, representing ...

Folding and Probing of Nucleic Acid Constructs

Begin by pipetting G4-TBA, single-stranded TBA, and double-stranded TBA solutions into three different tubes for folding. Heat the samples to 95 degrees Celsius for five minutes. Let them cool slowly to room temperature.Once the tubes have cooled to room temperature, centrifuge the tubes. Next, organize three sets each of seven empty autoclaved 0.5-milliliter tubes. Add three microliters of ultrapure water into each tube.Pipette five microliters of the folded nucleic acid constructs into each tube of the set. Next, add two microliters of either 25 or 250-micromolar B-CEP1 to obtain the final probe concentration of five and 50 micromolar respectively. To the three control tubes, add ultrapure water instead of the compound and incubate all the samples at 37 degrees Celsius.Stop the reaction by placing the tubes at 20 degrees Celsius, then dry the samples in a vacuum centrifuge.

Separation of Polymerized Nucleic Acid Constructs by PAGE 

Begin by preparing a polymerized page gel sandwich. Remove the clamps and paper tape layers, and slowly remove the comb. Thoroughly rinse the wells with distilled water.Place the gel sandwich correctly in the vertical electrophoresis apparatus. Fill the top and bottom reservoirs with TBE buffer. Warm up the plates by performing a pre-run of the gel electrophoresis for at least 30 minutes at 50 watts.Meanwhile, re-suspend the dried samples in five microliters of denaturing gel loading buffer. Next, use a small syringe filled with TBE buffer to flush the urea out of the wells of the gel. Now load the samples into the clean wells, taking note of the odor of loading.Run the gel for two hours at 50 watts or until the bromophenol blue dye has run down 2/3 of the gel. After electrophoresis, turn off the power supply, carefully remove the glass sandwich, and clean the glass plates. Place the gel in a gel imager to detect the fluorescence of the FAM-labeled oligonucleotide bands.After one, four, and 15 hours of incubation, either five or 50 Micromolar Bsep 1 reacted with two micromolar samples of G4 TBA, single-stranded TBA, and double-stranded TBA. Controls were loaded for each set of samples. The G4 TBA substrate showed only one alkylation adduct due to the availability of only G8 for alkylation and subsequent stranded cleavage.Multiple adducts and bands of cleavage products were observed in single and double-stranded TBA, because all guanines were susceptible to Bsep reaction. Probing reaction and tris buffer resulted in inefficient chemical mapping due to the presence of undesired nucleophiles, causing reduced proprioactivity. The G4 TBA samples showed only the formation of adduct without stranded cleavage.For the single and double-stranded TBA, only a 24-hour incubation led to DNA fragmentation, comparable to the 15-hour fragmentation without Tris.