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We present a benchtop protocol to induce thrombosis in ventricular assist devices (VAD) within a recirculating test platform. This method serves to identify thrombogenic hotspots in the blood flow path and can help improve thromboresistance ahead of preclinical testing in animal models.
The risk of thrombosis remains a significant concern in the development and clinical use of ventricular assist devices (VADs). Traditional assessments of VAD thrombogenicity, primarily through animal studies, are costly and time-consuming, raise ethical concerns, and ultimately may not accurately reflect human outcomes. To address these limitations, we developed an aggressive in vitro testing protocol designed to provoke thrombosis and identify potential high-risk areas within the blood flow path. This protocol, motivated by the work of Maruyama et al., employs a modified anticoagulation strategy and utilizes readily available components, making it accessible to most laboratories conducting in vitro blood testing of VADs. We demonstrated the utility of this method through iterative testing and refinement of a miniature magnetically levitated pediatric VAD (PediaFlow PF5). The method has been effective in identifying thrombogenic hotspots caused by design and manufacturing flaws in early VAD prototypes, enabling targeted improvements before advancing to animal studies. Despite its limitations, including the absence of pulsatile flow and the influence of donor blood characteristics, this protocol serves as a practical tool for early-stage VAD development and risk mitigation.
Ventricular assist devices (VADs) have become a standard of care in the management of patients with advanced heart failure, yet the risk of thrombosis and stroke remains a significant challenge1,2. Thrombosis within VADs is typically assessed during preclinical animal studies, which, while valuable, present substantial costs and logistical challenges. These studies are resource-intensive, time-consuming, and are susceptible to a single defect compromising the entire test and necessitating additional trials. This not only increases the financial burden but also raises ethical concerns due to the need for repeated animal testing.
Although there exist many numerical models for predicting platelet deposition and thrombosis3,4,5,6, only a few are suitable for simulating thrombus formation in macro-scale devices such as VADs7,8,9. Moreover, existing models inevitably assume idealized surfaces and simplified "watertight" geometries, which do not accurately reflect the complexities and imperfections of real-world pump assemblies. When platelet-surface interactions are considered, these macro-scale models generally employ uniformly prescribed material properties (typically modeled as a coefficient in the surface-flux boundary conditions)10,11,12. Consequently, numerical models cannot completely substitute for experimental testing with blood.
Both material choice and surface finish play critical roles in platelet adhesion on VAD surfaces13,14,15,16,17. Imperfections such as rough spots or irregularities can promote platelet adhesion and thrombus formation. Additionally, crevices between components in the flow path can serve as a nidus for thrombosis, providing protected environments where clots can form and grow18,19. The use of grease, lubricants, or sealants during assembly can also pose a risk, as these substances may seep into the flow path and interact with the blood, further increasing the risk of complications.
There is, therefore, a need for a well-defined in vitro testing protocol that can reliably assess the thromboresistance of VADs before they are subjected to animal testing or clinical use. While there is a widely adopted ASTM standard for the assessment of hemolysis20, no such standard exists for thrombogenicity testing of VADs under clinically relevant operating conditions21. Despite seminal studies dating back three decades demonstrating the feasibility of in vitro thrombosis testing for blood pumps22,23,24,25, animal testing has persisted as the de facto practice for evaluating thrombosis to date26. The hindrance to wider adoption of in vitro methods has likely been the complex nature of coagulation, with the multitude of confounding factors that can influence test results, making it challenging to differentiate intrinsic pump thrombogenicity from artifacts arising due to methodological limitations and procedural errors.
This motivated us to share a detailed protocol as a guide for experimentalists to avoid pitfalls, hence promoting the use of in vitro testing and mitigating the reliance on animal studies. The protocol described herein, derived from Maruyama et al.27, was refined and validated during the design of the 5th generation PediaFlow (PF5) pediatric VAD28,29. This testing method proved instrumental in systematically identifying and addressing potential thrombogenic risks in the VAD prototypes ahead of animal testing.
Ovine whole blood used in this study was obtained from a commercial vendor and, therefore, did not require a review by Cornell University's Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Construction of the test flow loop
NOTE: See the Table of Materials for a detailed list of loop components and all other materials used in this protocol.
2. Preparation of the calcium chloride (CaCl2) solution
3. Preparation of blood
NOTE: The ovine blood used in this study was obtained from a commercial vendor listed in the Table of Materials. The blood was collected using a 14-G needle, with the animal restrained in a standard agricultural standing position. The collection process took 10-12 min from needle insertion to completion. The blood was anticoagulated with 14 parts CPD to 86 parts blood (CPD formulation: 26.3 g/L Na-Citrate, 25.2 g of dextrose, 3 g/L citric acid, and 2.2 g/L Na Phosphate in deionized [DI] water). The blood bag was shipped overnight in an insulated container with ice packs and was used for the experiment within 24 h of collection.
4. Pre-test procedures
NOTE: All the steps described in this section apply to Sections 5 and 6. Perform these steps before operating the pump with bovine serum albumin (BSA) or blood in the loop. Transfer blood between vessels using gravity-feeding to minimize mechanical stress. Avoid using the syringe plunger to drive blood, as this can create excessive pressure. Additionally, avoid throttling blood through narrow openings to prevent damage to cellular components.
5. Passivating the blood-contacting surfaces
6. Thrombosis testing
7. Cleaning procedure
Successful execution of this protocol enables the identification of localized areas of platelet deposition, revealing problematic spots within the pump's flow path. Consistent application of this protocol allows for incremental improvements by addressing these identified "hotspots".
For example, during the development of the PediaFlow PF5 VAD, we encountered challenges in manually polishing the pressure side of the stator vanes due to the miniature size of the components. In vi...
First-in-human trial of a new pump is always a precarious endeavor, as preclinical studies cannot reliably predict the thrombogenicity of VADs in humans26. Notably, some VADs that demonstrated freedom from thrombosis in animal trials have later exhibited significant thrombogenicity in clinical use36. An aggressive in vitro testing regimen specifically designed to provoke thrombosis provides a valuable opportunity to identify potential design or manufacturing flaws ...
S.E.O. currently serves as a consultant for Magenta Medical and was previously a consultant at Boston Scientific. No other authors have any relevant financial disclosures or conflicts of interest to report.
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant R01HL089456 and the U.S. Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity Project Number W81XWH2010387.
Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
14-mL test tubes | Falcon | 352059 | Round bottom polypropylene test tubes with snap-cap |
1-way stopcock | Qosina | 99759 | Female Luer Lock, Male Luer with Spin Lock |
3-way stopcock | Qosina | 99771 | 2 Female Luer Locks, Rotating Male Luer Lock |
ACT+ cuvettes for Hemochron | Werfen | 000JACT+ | 45/Box |
All-purpose cleaner/degreaser | Simple Green | 2710200613005 | Simple Green Cleaner and Degreaser. Use 1% solution. |
Barbed connectors | Qosina | 73311 | Material: polycarbonate; ΒΌβ x ΒΌβ straight connector |
Barbed connectors w/ luer lock | Qosina | 73316 | Material: polycarbonate; ΒΌβ x ΒΌβ straight connector with luer lock |
Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) | Thermo Scientific Chemicals | AAJ6465522 | Or equivalent |
Calcium chloride, CaCl2 | Thermo Scientific Chemicals | AA89866-30 | Anhydrous, β₯96.0% ACS |
Dissecting scope (recommended) | Olympus | https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/technology/museum/micro/1984/ | Olympus SZH10 (continuous zoom magnification 7x - 70x) or similar |
DPBS (w/o calcium and magnesium) | Gibco | 14200075 | Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline, no calcium, no magnesium, 10X (must be diluted to 1X before use) |
EDTA | Quality Biological | 351-027-721EA | 0.5 M, pH 7.0β8.0 (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) |
Endoscope/borescope/otoscope camera (optional) | Bebird | https://bebird.com/products/earsight-pro-ear-wax-removers | 3β4 mm probe diameter |
Enzyme-active powdered detergent | Alconox | 1304-1 | Alconox Tergazyme. Use 1% solution. |
Extension Line, 30" | QosinaΒ | 36218 | 30" length,Β female luer lock to male luer lock |
Extension Line, 6" | QosinaΒ | 36212 | 6" length,Β female luer lock to male luer lock |
Female luer lock, barbed | Qosina | 11548 | Fits 1/8 inch ID Tubing; material: polycarbonate; |
Flow meter | Transonic | https://www.transonic.com/t402-t403-consoles | Transonic TS410 module |
Hemostat | Fisherbrand | 13-820-004 | Locking hemostat with at least 5 cm tip length |
Heparin Sodium | McKesson Packaging Services | 949513 | 1000 U/mL concentration |
Hoffman clamp | Humboldt | H8720 | Fine-threaded clamp |
IV bag (compliant blood reservoir) | Qosina | 51494 | Material: PVC, 2 Tube ports 0.258β ID. The 100-ml bag is modified using a heat sealer |
Lint-free wipes | Kimberly-Clark Professional | 34120 | Kimtech Science Wipers |
Magnetic stirrer | INTLLAB | MS-500 | Or similar |
Male luer lock, barbed | Qosina | 11549 | Fits 1/8 inch ID Tubing; material: polycarbonate; |
Manometer (digital) | Sper Scientific | 840081 | SPER-840081 or similar |
Nylon filtering mesh | McMaster-Carr | 9318T21 | 100-ΞΌm (0.0039") opening size |
Ovine blood | Lampire | 7209004 | Donor whole blood, anticoagulated with ACD 14:86, shipped overnight |
Plastic bag heat sealer | Uline | H-190 | Uline H-190 or similar (without cutter) |
Silicone rubber adhesive | Smooth-OnΒ | B00IRC1YI0 | Sil-Poxy or similar |
Syringe w/ luer lock, 1 mL | Fisher Scientific | 14-955-646 | Fisherbrand manual syringe without needle for research purposes |
Syringe w/ luer lock, 3 mL | Fisher Scientific | 14-955-457 | Fisherbrand manual syringe without needle for research purposes |
Syringe w/ luer lock, 60 mL | Fisher Scientific | 14-955-461 | Fisherbrand manual syringe without needle for research purposes |
Transfusion filter | Haemonetics CorporationΒ | SQ40S/SQ40NS | Haemonetics Corporation SQ40S pall blood transfusion filter |
TRIS Buffered Saline | Thermo Scientific Chemicals | AAJ62938K2 | TBS 10x (must be diluted to 1X before use), pH 7.4 |
Tubing | Tygon | ADF00017 | Tygon ND-100-65 tubing (medical grade) |
Ultrasonic flow sensor | Transonic | https://www.transonic.com/hqxl-flowsensors | Select appropriate flow sensor model for the tubing size used. ME6PXL clamp-on sensor fits the 3/8β OD tubing. The sensor is calibrated by Transonic for the test fluid (e.g., blood atΒ 24C) and tubing grade (e.g. Tygon ND-100-65) |
Ultrasonic sonicator (optional) | Branson Ultrasonics | CPX952238R | Branson CPX2800H or similar |
VAD system | PediaFlow | PF5 | The VAD system to be tested; includes the pump and the controller |
Whole Blood Coagulation System | Werfen | https://www.werfen.com/na/en/point-of-care-testing-devices/ACT-machine-hemochron-signature-elite | Hemochron Signature Elite or Signature Jr |
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