Name: intravenous and intra-amniotic in utero transplantation in the murine model
Uploaded: 2018-10-09T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intravenous and Intra-amniotic In Utero Transplantation in the Murine Model at JoVE.com

The experimental protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at The Children&#39;s Hospital of Philadelphia.
1. Creation of Injection Pipettes
<ol>
	<li>Using a vertical micropipette puller, pull a 100 &#181;L microcapillary pipette (Figure&#160;1A - 1C). Calibrate the micropipette puller so that the tapered end is &#62; 1 cm long. 
	NOTE: Initially, the settings of the puller should be adjusted for an optimum...

<ol>
	<li>Loukogeorgakis, S., Flake, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+utero+stem+cell+and+gene+therapy:+current+status+and+future+perspectives.">In utero stem cell and gene therapy: current status and future perspectives.</a> European Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 24, 237-245 (2014).</li><li>Vrecenak, J., Flake, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+utero+hematopoietic+cell+transplantation:+recent+progress+and+the+potential+for+clinical+application.">In utero hematopoietic cell transplantation: recent progress and the potential for clinical application.</a> Cytotherapy. 15, 525-535 (2013).</li><li>Peranteau, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Correction+of+murine+hemoglobinopathies+by+prenatal+tolerance+induction+and+postnatal+nonmyeloablative+allogeneic+BM+transplants.">Correction of murine hemoglobinopathies by prenatal tolerance induction and postnatal nonmyeloablative allogeneic BM transplants.</a> Blood. 126 (10), 1245-1254 (2015).</li><li>Vrecenak, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stable+Long-Term+Mixed+Chimerism+Achieved+in+a+Canine+Model+of+Allogeneic+in+utero+Hematopoietic+Cell+Transplantation.">Stable Long-Term Mixed Chimerism Achieved in a Canine Model of Allogeneic in utero Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation.</a> Blood. 124 (12), 1987-1995 (2014).</li><li>Peranteau, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CD26+Inhibition+Enhances+Allogeneic+Donor-Cell+Homing+and+Engraftment+after+in+utero+Hematopoietic-Cell+Transplantation.">CD26 Inhibition Enhances Allogeneic Donor-Cell Homing and Engraftment after in utero Hematopoietic-Cell Transplantation.</a> Blood. 108 (13), 4268-4274 (2006).</li><li>Waddington, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+utero+gene+transfer+of+human+factor+IX+to+fetal+mice+can+induce+postnatal+tolerance+of+the+exogenous+clotting+factor.">In utero gene transfer of human factor IX to fetal mice can induce postnatal tolerance of the exogenous clotting factor.</a> Blood. 101 (4), 1359-1366 (2003).</li><li>Stitelman, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+Stage+Determines+Efficiency+of+Gene+Transfer+to+Muscle+Satellite+Cells+by+in+utero+Delivery+of+Adeno-Associated+Virus+Vector+Serotype+2/9.">Developmental Stage Determines Efficiency of Gene Transfer to Muscle Satellite Cells by in utero Delivery of Adeno-Associated Virus Vector Serotype 2/9.</a> Molecular Therapy - Methods &amp; Clinical Development. 1, 14040 (2014).</li><li>Endo, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+Transfer+to+Ocular+Stem+Cells+by+Early+Gestational+Intraamniotic+Injection+of+Lentiviral+Vector.">Gene Transfer to Ocular Stem Cells by Early Gestational Intraamniotic Injection of Lentiviral Vector.</a> Molecular Therapy. 15 (3), 579-587 (2007).</li><li>Boelig, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Intravenous+Route+of+Injection+Optimizes+Engraftment+and+Survival+in+the+Murine+Model+of+In+utero+Hematopoietic+Cell+Transplantation.">The Intravenous Route of Injection Optimizes Engraftment and Survival in the Murine Model of In utero Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation.</a> Biology of Blood and Marrow Transplantation. 22 (6), 991-999 (2016).</li><li>Wu, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intra-amniotic+Transient+Transduction+of+the+Periderm+with+a+Viral+Vector+Encoding+TGF&#946;3+Prevents+Cleft+Palate+in+Tgf&#946;3-/-.+Mouse+Embryos.">Intra-amniotic Transient Transduction of the Periderm with a Viral Vector Encoding TGF&#946;3 Prevents Cleft Palate in Tgf&#946;3-/-. Mouse Embryos.</a> Molecular Therapy. 1, 8-17 (2013).</li><li>Roybal, J., Endo, M., Radu, A., Zoltick, P., Flake, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+gestational+gene+transfer+of+IL-10+by+systemic+administration+of+lentiviral+vector+can+prevent+arthritis+in+a+murine+model.">Early gestational gene transfer of IL-10 by systemic administration of lentiviral vector can prevent arthritis in a murine model.</a> Gene Therapy. 18 (7), 719-726 (2011).</li><li>Reay, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Full-Length+Dystrophin+Gene+Transfer+to+the+Mdx+Mouse+in+utero.">Full-Length Dystrophin Gene Transfer to the Mdx Mouse in utero.</a> Gene Therapy. 15 (7), 531-536 (2008).</li><li>Ahmed, S., Waddington, S., Boza-Mor&#225;n, M., Y&#225;&#241;ez-Mu&#241;oz, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-Efficiency+Transduction+of+Spinal+Cord+Motor+Neurons+by+Intrauterine+Delivery+of+Integration-Deficient+Lentiviral+Vectors.">High-Efficiency Transduction of Spinal Cord Motor Neurons by Intrauterine Delivery of Integration-Deficient Lentiviral Vectors.</a> Journal of Controlled Release. 273, 99-107 (2018).</li><li>Haddad, M., Donsante, A., Zerfas, P., Kaler, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fetal+Brain-Directed+AAV+Gene+Therapy+Results+in+Rapid,+Robust,+and+Persistent+Transduction+of+Mouse+Choroid+Plexus+Epithelia.">Fetal Brain-Directed AAV Gene Therapy Results in Rapid, Robust, and Persistent Transduction of Mouse Choroid Plexus Epithelia.</a> Molecular Therapy - Nucleic Acids. 2, 101 (2013).</li><li>Nijagal, A., Le, T., Wegorzewska, M., MacKenzie, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+mouse+model+of+in+utero+transplantation.">A mouse model of in utero transplantation.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (47), e2303 (2011).</li><li>Davey, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Jaagsiekte+Sheep+Retrovirus+Pseudotyped+Lentiviral+Vector-Mediated+Gene+Transfer+to+Fetal+Ovine+Lung.">Jaagsiekte Sheep Retrovirus Pseudotyped Lentiviral Vector-Mediated Gene Transfer to Fetal Ovine Lung.</a> Gene Therapy. 19 (2), 201-209 (2011).</li></ol>

In utero transplantation is a potential therapy for many congenital disorders that can be diagnosed early in gestation. The murine model for IUT allows researchers to explore the fetal environment or to experiment with different therapies. Depending on what is being injected and what is being targeted, intravenous or intra-amniotic in utero transplantation can provide a reliable delivery of an injectant into the desired space.
When targeting specific organs, it is important t...

Recent advances in antenatal screening and diagnosis have brought to light the possibility of treating the fetus for a number of congenital disorders which do not have adequate postnatal treatment options and result in significant morbidity and mortality. Specifically, in utero hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (IUHCT) and gene therapy/genome editing have the potential to take advantage of normal developmental properties of the fetus to treat congenital hematologic, immune, and genetic disorders more efficiently than postnatal HSC transplantation and gene therapy/genome editing can do1,2. Specifically, due to the small size of the fetus, the donor cell or viral vector dose can be maximized per the weight of the recipient. Additionally, the immunologic immaturity of the fetus allows donor HSCs to be injected without the myeloablative and immunosuppressive conditioning that is required in postnatal transplant protocols. Similarly, viral vectors carrying a therapeutic transgene or genome editing technology can be injected without a limiting immune response to either the transgene product or the viral vector. Finally, the accessibility and proliferative nature of fetal stem/progenitor cells afford the possibility of a more efficient transduction of target progenitor cells, as well as certain modes of genome editing (homology-directed repair) which require cycling cells to occur efficiently. The murine model serves as an insightful and affordable means to address important questions in stem cell biology and immunology prior to experimenting in pre-clinical large animal models and, as such, has served as the primary model in which IUHCT and in utero gene therapy have been explored1,2,3.
Although many variables play an important role in the success of IUHCT and in utero gene therapy/genome editing in murine and large animal models, a key variable is the method of delivery of the HSCs or viral vector. The delivery of large doses of donor HSCs with a first-pass effect occurring in the fetal liver, the hematopoietic organ at the time of the IUHCT, has been shown to be instrumental in achieving macrochimeric levels of engraftment in mouse and large animal models4,5. This was achieved via an injection of donor cells via the vitelline vein in the mouse model and via an intra-cardiac injection in the canine model. The route of injection also plays a fundamental role in targeting progenitor cells of different organs during development. For example, an intravenous injection via the vitelline vein has been shown to efficiently transduce cardiomyocytes and hepatocytes following a late gestation injection6,7. Alternatively, an intra-amniotic injection of viral vectors allows the targeting of organs that are physically exposed based on the embryonic folding/development at the time of the injection8. This is best exemplified by the targeting of respiratory epithelium via an intra-amniotic injection late in the gestation to take advantage of normal fetal &#34;breathing&#34; movements, which exposes the respiratory tract to the viral vector in the amniotic fluid9. These two modes of IUT, intravenous via the vitelline vein and intra-amniotic, have been the basis for multiple past and ongoing experiments in our laboratory. In this protocol, we describe in detail the methods for performing intravenous and intra-amniotic IUT in the murine model.

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			<td style="width:168px;">Narishige</td>
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intravenous and intra-amniotic in utero transplantation in the murine model

In utero transplantation (IUT) is a unique and versatile mode of therapy that can be used to introduce stem cells, viral vectors, or any other substances early in the gestation. The rationale behind IUT for therapeutic purposes is based on the small size of the fetus, the fetal immunologic immaturity, the accessibility and proliferative nature of the fetal stem or progenitor cells, and the potential to treat a disease or the onset of symptoms prior to birth. Taking advantage of these normal developmental properties of the fetus, the delivery of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) via an IUT has the potential to treat congenital hematologic disorders such as sickle cell disease, without the required myeloablative or immunosuppressive conditioning required for postnatal HSC transplants. Similarly, the accessibility of progenitor cells in multiple organs during development potentially allows for a more efficient targeting of stem/progenitor cells following an IUT of viral vectors for gene therapy or genome editing. Additionally, IUT can be used to study normal developmental processes including, but not limited to, the development of immunologic tolerance. The murine model provides a valuable and affordable means to understanding the potential and limitations of IUT prior to pre-clinical large animal studies and an eventual clinical application. Here, we describe a protocol for performing an IUT in the murine fetus through intravenous and intra-amniotic routes. This protocol has been used successfully to elucidate the necessary conditions and mechanisms behind in utero hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, tolerance induction, and in utero gene therapy.

Survival and engraftment are important measures of success for IUHCT experiments. Depending on the specific endpoints of an experiment, fetuses that received an IUHCT may be analyzed prenatally by a C-section or postnatally. On average, the survival rates after intravenous injections range from 75 - 100%. The survival rates after intra-amniotic injections tend to fair better than intravenous injections, at around 85 - 100%.
In o...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intravenous and Intra-amniotic In Utero Transplantation in the Murine Model at JoVE.com

Intravenous and Intra-amniotic In Utero Transplantation in the Murine Model

We describe a protocol for performing an in utero transplantation (IUT) through intravenous and intra-amniotic routes of injection in the murine model. This protocol can be used to introduce cells, viral vectors, and other substances into the unique immune-tolerant fetal environment.

Intravenous and Intra-amniotic In Utero Transplantation in the Murine Model

In utero transplantation (IUT) is a unique and versatile mode of therapy that can be used to introduce stem cells, viral vectors, or any other substances ...

This method can help answer key questions in embryology, gene therapy and stem cell transplantation. An advantage to this technique is that it enables analysis of the effects of different experimental therapies on Murine fetuses. Demonstrating this procedure will be doctors Nicholas Ahn, and Barbara Coons, physicians and research fellows in our laboratory.Before beginning the procedure, drop five to 10 microliters of sterile PBS into and out of the surgical needle tip, two to three times to clear it of any possible debris. Next fill the needle with the reagent of interest at the appropriate experimental volume and concentration. And press the mode button three times on the micro injector to advance to the injection calibration screen.Add intervals of 10 or 100 milliseconds to adjust the injection time, and press the mode button two more times. Press the balance button and push the foot pedal once. Then press the pedal again and assess what volume of solution is emptied out of the needle per push.When the micro injector is calibrated to the appropriate experimental volume, fill the needle to the correct level for the injection. When all of the needles have been cleaned, confirm a lack of response to toe pinch of the pregnant two to six month old female mouse. Shave the abdomen, taking care not to damage the nipples, and transfer the animal to a heating pad in the supine position.Apply ointment to the animal's eyes and secure the limbs to the heating pad with tape. And disinfect the exposed skin. Then inject local anesthetics such as 100 microliters of 0.25%Bupivacaine subcutaneously.Next, make a one to two centimeter skin incision such that the lower border is no closer than one centimeter to the introitus, and identify the midline of the fascia, taking care not to injure the surrounding epigastric vessels. Using Adson forceps, pinch the fascia without grabbing any of the underlying organs or fetuses, and open the tissue with scissors. Once safely within the abdominal cavity, extend the fascial incision to the length of the skin incision, and use cotton tip applicators to move the intestines into the upper part of the abdomen to expose the gravid uterus.Extract the uterus through the incision carefully identifying the right and left ovaries to ensure that all of the fetuses are counted. Place the left uterus back into the abdomen so that only the right uterus is exposed, to keep the non injected fetuses warm. And gently grasp at the most lateral amniotic sac between the thumb and index fingers of the non dominant hand.Position the dissection microscope over the animal and adjust the focus and lighting for a better visualization of the fetus as necessary. For an intravenous injection rotate the uterus so that the vitelline vain, to be injected is parallel to the needle tip. And lay the needle on the uterus at a five degree angle to pierce the uterine wall.With the tip between the uterine wall and the amniotic sac, place the tip directly atop the vitelline vain and at a nearly tangential angle, glide the needle over the vain until the bevel advances into the vessel. It's imperative that the angle stays low so that the needle does not penetrate the back wall of the vessel. When a spot of blood is observed at the needle tip, to press the foot pedal to inject the full volume of the material of interest into the vessel.For an intra amniotic injection, rotate the amniotic sac until a location devoid of vessels is found. Point the needle perpendicular to the uterine wall and pierce the needle through the uterus yolk sac, and amniotic sac taking care not penetrate any fetal tissue. Then inject the appropriate volume of material desired.After either type of injection, withdraw the needle from the injection site once the desired volume is delivered. And proceed to the next fetus until all of the fetuses of the right uterine horn have been injected. Then return the right uterine horn into the abdomen.And remove the left uterine horn out of the abdomen. When all the fetuses in the left horn have been injected return the entire uterus to the abdomen, taking care to avoid a uterine or intestinal volvulus. Use a disposable transfer pipette to dispense about two milliliters of sterile PBS into the abdomen, to replace any insensible losses.And use 4-0 polyglactin 910 sutures to close the fascia and abdomen in one continuous layer. Then transfer the mouse to a clean cage under a heat lamp with monitoring until full recumbency. In this training experiment the livers of the fetuses that received in-utero transplantation by a trainee displayed lower fluorescent levels 24 hours after injection, due to a lower engraftment of the transplanted GFP cells, than did livers injected by an experienced instructor.Flow cytometric analysis for GFP positive donor cells also correlated with the lower level of fluorescents observed under fluorescent microscopy. The ability of viral vectors delivered via the intra-amniotic route to transduce cells in contact with the amniotic fluid. Is exemplified by the transduction of epithelial cells 48 hours following the in utero injection of Adeno virus carrying the GFP transgene in gestational day 12.5 fetuses.Once mastered this technique can completed in 15-25 minutes per pregnant mouse. After watching this video you should have a good understanding of how to safely and effectively deliver different therapies to mouse fetuses.

intravenous-intra-amniotic-utero-transplantation-murine

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Analysis of Zebrafish Larvae Skeletal Muscle Integrity with Evans Blue Dye

The zebrafish model is an emerging system for the study of neuromuscular disorders. In the study of neuromuscular diseases, the integrity of the muscle membrane is a critical disease determinant. To date, numerous neuromuscular conditions display degenerating muscle fibers with abnormal membrane integrity; this is most commonly observed in muscular dystrophies. Evans Blue Dye (EBD) is a vital, cell permeable dye that is rapidly taken into degenerating, damaged, or apoptotic cells; in contrast, it is not taken up by cells with an intact membrane. EBD injection is commonly employed to ascertain muscle integrity in mouse models of neuromuscular diseases. However, such EBD experiments require muscle dissection and/or sectioning prior to analysis. In contrast, EBD uptake in zebrafish is visualized in live, intact preparations. Here, we demonstrate a simple and straightforward methodology for performing EBD injections and analysis in live zebrafish. In addition, we demonstrate a co-injection strategy to increase efficacy of EBD analysis. Overall, this video article provides an outline to perform EBD injection and characterization in zebrafish models of neuromuscular disease.

In this study, we describe a straightforward method to perform Evans Blue Dye (EBD) analysis on zebrafish larvae. This technique is a powerful tool for the characterization of skeletal muscle integrity and delineation of zebrafish models of muscular dystrophy, and is a valuable method for the development of novel therapeutics.

The zebrafish model is an emerging system for the study of neuromuscular disorders.  In the study of neuromuscular diseases, the integrity of the muscle ...

Culture of Murine Embryonic Metatarsals: A Physiological Model of Endochondral Ossification

The fundamental process of endochondral ossification is under tight regulation in the healthy individual so as to prevent disturbed development and/or longitudinal bone growth. As such, it is imperative that we further our understanding of the underpinning molecular mechanisms involved in such disorders so as to provide advances towards human and animal patient benefit. The mouse metatarsal organ explant culture is a highly physiological ex vivo model for studying endochondral ossification and bone growth as the growth rate of the bones in culture mimic that observed in vivo. Uniquely, the metatarsal organ culture allows the examination of chondrocytes in different phases of chondrogenesis and maintains cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, therefore providing conditions closer to the in vivo situation than cells in monolayer or 3D culture. This protocol describes in detail the intricate dissection of embryonic metatarsals from the hind limb of E15 murine embryos and the subsequent analyses that can be performed in order to examine endochondral ossification and longitudinal bone growth.

We present a protocol to dissect and culture embryonic day 15 (E15) murine metatarsal bones. This highly physiological ex vivo model of endochondral ossification provides conditions closer to the in vivo situation than cells in monolayer or 3D culture and is a vital tool for investigating bone growth and development.

The fundamental process of endochondral ossification is under tight regulation in the healthy individual so as to prevent disturbed development and/or ...

A Novel Mammary Fat Pad Transplantation Technique to Visualize the Vessel Generation of Vascular Endothelial Stem Cells

Endothelial cells (ECs) are the fundamental building blocks of the vascular architecture and mediate vascular growth and remodeling to ensure proper vessel development and homeostasis. However, studies on endothelial lineage hierarchy remain elusive due to the lack of tools to gain access as well as to directly evaluate their behavior in vivo. To address this shortcoming, a new tissue model to study angiogenesis using the mammary fat pad has been developed. The mammary gland develops mostly in the postnatal stages, including puberty and pregnancy, during which robust epithelium proliferation is accompanied by extensive vascular remodeling. Mammary fat pads provide space, matrix, and rich angiogenic stimuli from the growing mammary epithelium. Furthermore, mammary fat pads are located outside the peritoneal cavity, making them an easily accessible grafting site for assessing the angiogenic potential of exogenous cells. This work also describes an efficient tracing approach using fluorescent reporter mice to specifically label the targeted population of vascular endothelial stem cells (VESCs) in vivo. This lineage tracing method, coupled with subsequent tissue whole-mount microscopy, enable the direct visualization of targeted cells and their descendants, through which the proliferation capability can be quantified and the differentiation commitment can be fate-mapped. Using these methods, a population of bipotent protein C receptor (Procr) expressing VESCs has recently been identified in multiple vascular systems. Procr+ VESCs, giving rise to both new ECs and pericytes, actively contribute to angiogenesis during development, homeostasis, and injury repair. Overall, this manuscript describes a new mammary fat pad transplantation and in vivo lineage tracing techniques that can be used to evaluate the stem cell properties of VESCs.

This work demonstrates a novel approach to assess the proliferation, differentiation, and vessel-forming potential of vascular endothelial stem cells (VESCs) through mammary fat pad transplantation followed by whole-mount tissue preparation for microscopic observation. A lineage tracing strategy to investigate the behavior of VESCs in vivo is also presented.

Endothelial cells (ECs) are the fundamental building blocks of the vascular architecture and mediate vascular growth and remodeling to ensure proper ...

Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains

Nervous system development involves a sequential series of events that are coordinated by several signaling pathways and regulatory networks. Many of the proteins involved in these pathways are evolutionarily conserved between mammals and other eukaryotes, such as the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, suggesting that similar organizing principles exist during the development of these organisms. Importantly, Drosophila has been used extensively to identify cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating processes that are required in mammals including neurogenesis, differentiation, axonal guidance, and synaptogenesis. Flies have also been used successfully to model a variety of human neurodevelopmental diseases. Here we describe a protocol for the step-by-step microdissection, fixation, and immunofluorescent localization of proteins within the adult Drosophila brain. This protocol focuses on two example neuronal populations, mushroom body neurons and retinal photoreceptors, and includes optional steps to trace individual mushroom body neurons using Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) technique. Example data from both wild-type and mutant brains are shown along with a brief description of a scoring criteria for axonal guidance defects. While this protocol highlights two well-established antibodies for investigating the morphology of mushroom body and photoreceptor neurons, other Drosophila brain regions and the localization of proteins within other brain regions can also be investigated using this protocol.

Dissection and Immunofluorescent Staining of Mushroom Body and Photoreceptor Neurons in Adult Drosophila melanogaster Brains

This protocol describes the dissection and immunostaining of adult Drosophila melanogaster brain tissues. Specifically, this protocol highlights the use of Drosophila mushroom body and photoreceptor neurons as example neuronal subsets that can be accurately used to uncover general principles underlying many aspects of neuronal development.

Nervous system development involves a sequential series of events that are coordinated by several signaling pathways and regulatory networks. Many of the ...

CRISPR-mediated Loss of Function Analysis in Cerebellar Granule Cells Using In Utero Electroporation-based Gene Transfer

Brain malformation is often caused by genetic mutations. Deciphering the mutations in patient-derived tissues has identified potential causative factors of the diseases. To validate the contribution of a dysfunction of the mutated genes to disease development, the generation of animal models carrying the mutations is one obvious approach. While germline genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) are popular biological tools and exhibit reproducible results, it is restricted by time and costs. Meanwhile, non-germline GEMMs often enable exploring gene function in a more feasible manner. Since some brain diseases (e.g., brain tumors) appear to result from somatic but not germline mutations, non-germline chimeric mouse models, in which normal and abnormal cells coexist, could be helpful for disease-relevant analysis. In this study, we report a method for the induction of CRISPR-mediated somatic mutations in the cerebellum. Specifically, we utilized conditional knock-in mice, in which Cas9 and GFP are chronically activated by the CAG (CMV enhancer/chicken &#223;-actin) promoter after Cre-mediated recombination of the genome. The self-designed single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) and the Cre recombinase sequence, both encoded in a single plasmid construct, were delivered into cerebellar stem/progenitor cells at an embryonic stage using in utero electroporation. Consequently, transfected cells and their daughter cells were labeled with green fluorescent protein (GFP), thus facilitating further phenotypic analyses. Hence, this method is not only showing electroporation-based gene delivery into embryonic cerebellar cells but also proposing a novel quantitative approach to assess CRISPR-mediated loss-of-function phenotypes.

CRISPR-mediated Loss of Function Analysis in Cerebellar Granule Cells Using In Utero Electroporation-based Gene Transfer

Conventional loss-of-function studies of genes using knockout animals have often been costly and time-consuming. Electroporation-based CRISPR-mediated somatic mutagenesis is a powerful tool to understand gene functions in vivo. Here, we report a method to analyze knockout phenotypes in proliferating cells of the cerebellum.

Brain malformation is often caused by genetic mutations. Deciphering the mutations in patient-derived tissues has identified potential causative factors ...

Visualizing the Node and Notochordal Plate In Gastrulating Mouse Embryos Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Whole Mount Immunofluorescence

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is the formation of the transient organizers, the node and notochordal plate, from cells that have passed through the primitive streak. The proper formation of these signaling centers is essential for the development of the body plan and techniques to visualize them are of high interest to mouse developmental biologists. The node and notochordal plate lie on the ventral surface of gastrulating mouse embryos around embryonic day (E) 7.5 of development. The node is a cup-shaped structure whose cells possess a single slender cilium each. The proper subcellular localization and rotation of the cilia in the node pit determines left-right asymmetry. The notochordal plate cells also possess single cilia albeit shorter than those of the node cells. The notochordal plate forms the notochord which acts as an important signaling organizer for somitogenesis and neural patterning. Because the cells of the node and notochordal plate are transiently present on the surface and possess cilia, they can be visualized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Among other techniques used to visualize these structures at the cellular level is whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF) using the antibodies against the proteins that are highly expressed in the node and notochordal plate. In this report, we describe our optimized protocols to perform SEM and WMIF of the node and notochordal plate in developing mouse embryos to help in the assessment of tissue shape and cellular organization in wild-type and gastrulation mutant embryos.

The node and notochordal plate are transient signaling organizers in developing mouse embryos that can be visualized using several techniques. Here, we describe in detail how to perform two of the techniques to study their structure and morphogenesis: 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM); and 2) whole mount immunofluorescence (WMIF).

The post-implantation mouse embryo undergoes major shape changes after the initiation of gastrulation and morphogenesis. A hallmark of morphogenesis is ...

Assessment of Ultrastructural Neuroplasticity Parameters After In Utero Transduction of the Developing Mouse Brain and Spinal Cord

The present study combines in utero transduction with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) aiming at a precise morphometrical analysis of ultrastructural parameters in unambiguously identified topographical structures, affected by a protein of interest that is introduced into the organism via viral transfer. This combined approach allows for a smooth transition from macrostructural to ultrastructural identification by following topographical navigation maps in a tissue atlas. High-resolution electron microscopy of the in-utero-transduced tissue reveals the fine ultrastructure of the neuropil and its plasticity parameters, such as cross-sectioned synaptic bouton areas, the number of synaptic vesicles and mitochondria within a bouton profile, the length of synaptic contacts, cross-sectioned axonal areas, the thickness of myelin sheaths, the number of myelin lamellae, and cross-sectioned areas of mitochondria profiles. The analysis of these parameters reveals essential insights into changes of ultrastructural plasticity in the areas of the nervous system that are affected by the viral transfer of the genetic construct. This combined method can not only be used for studying the direct effect of genetically engineered biomolecules and/or drugs on neuronal plasticity but also opens the possibility to study the in utero rescue of neuronal plasticity (e.g., in the context of neurodegenerative diseases).

The combination of transmission electron microscopy and in utero transduction is a powerful approach for studying morphological changes in the fine ultrastructure of the nervous system during development. This combined method allows deep insights into changes in structural details underlying neuroplasticity with respect to their topographical representation.

The present study combines in utero transduction with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) aiming at a precise morphometrical analysis of ...

Controlled Cortical Impact Model of Mouse Brain Injury with Therapeutic Transplantation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neural Cells

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Disease pathology due to TBI progresses from the primary mechanical insult to secondary injury processes, including apoptosis and inflammation. Animal modeling has been valuable in the search to unravel injury mechanisms and evaluate potential neuroprotective therapies. This protocol describes the controlled cortical impact (CCI) model of focal, open-head TBI. Specifically, parameters for producing a mild unilateral cortical injury are described. Behavioral consequences of CCI are analyzed using the adhesive tape removal test of bilateral sensorimotor integration. Regarding experimental therapy for TBI pathology, this protocol also illustrates a process for transplanting cultured cells into the brain. Neural cell cultures derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) were chosen for their potential to show superior functional restoration in human TBI patients. Chronic survival of hiPSCs in the host mouse brain tissue is detected using a modified DAB immunohistochemical process.

This protocol demonstrates methodologies for a mouse model of open-skull traumatic brain injury and transplantation of cultured human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cells into the injury site. Behavioral and histologic tests of outcomes from these procedures are also described in brief.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Disease pathology due to TBI progresses from the primary mechanical ...

Murine Neural Plate Targeting by In Utero Nano-Injection (NEPTUNE) at Embryonic Day 7.5

Manipulating gene expression in the developing mouse brain in utero holds great potential for functional genetics studies. However, it has previously largely been restricted to the manipulation of embryonic stages post-neurulation. A protocol was developed to inject the amniotic cavity at embryonic day (E)7.5 and deliver lentivirus, encoding cDNA or shRNA, targeting &gt;95% of the neural plate and neural crest cells, contributing to the future brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system. This protocol describes the steps necessary to achieve successful transduction, including grinding of the glass capillary needles, pregnancy verification, developmental staging using ultrasound imaging, and optimal injection volumes matched to embryonic stages. 
Following this protocol, it is possible to achieve transduction of &gt;95% of the developing brain with high-titer lentivirus and thus perform whole-brain genetic manipulation. In contrast, it is possible to achieve mosaic transduction using lower viral titers, allowing for genetic screening or lineage tracing. Injection at E7.5 also targets ectoderm and neural crest contributing to distinct compartments of the eye, tongue, and peripheral nervous system. This technique thus offers the possibility to manipulate gene expression in mouse neural-plate- and ectoderm-derived tissues from preneurulation stages, with the benefit of reducing the number of mice used in experiments.

Murine Neural Plate Targeting by In Utero Nano-Injection NEPTUNE at Embryonic Day 7.5

In this protocol, we describe how to inject the mouse amniotic cavity at E7.5 with lentivirus, leading to uniform transduction of the entire neural plate, with minimal detrimental effects on survival or embryonic development.

Manipulating gene expression in the developing mouse brain in utero holds great potential for functional genetics studies. However, it has previously ...

Isolation of Rat Adipose Tissue Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Differentiation into Insulin-producing Cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-especially those isolated from adipose tissue (Ad-MSCs)-have gained special attention as a renewable, abundant source of stem cells that does not pose any ethical concerns. However, current methods to isolate Ad-MSCs are not standardized and employ complicated protocols that require special equipment. We isolated Ad-MSCs from the epididymal fat of Sprague-Dawley rats using a simple, reproducible method. The isolated Ad-MSCs usually appear within 3 days post isolation, as adherent cells display fibroblastic morphology. Those cells reach 80% confluency within 1 week of isolation. Afterward, at passage 3-5 (P3-5), a full characterization was carried out for the isolated Ad-MSCs by immunophenotyping for characteristic MSC cluster of differentiation (CD) surface markers such as CD90, CD73, and CD105, as well as inducing differentiation of these cells down the osteogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic lineages. This, in turn, implies the multipotency of the isolated cells. Furthermore, we induced the differentiation of the isolated Ad-MSCs toward the insulin-producing cells (IPCs) lineage via a simple, relatively short protocol by incorporating high glucose Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle medium (HG-DMEM), &#946;-mercaptoethanol, nicotinamide, and exendin-4. IPCs differentiation was genetically assessed, firstly, via measuring the expression levels of specific &#946;-cell markers such as MafA, NKX6.1, Pdx-1, and Ins1, as well as dithizone staining for the generated IPCs. Secondly, the assessment was also carried out functionally by a glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) assay. In conclusion, Ad-MSCs can be easily isolated, exhibiting all MSC characterization criteria, and they can indeed provide an abundant, renewable source of IPCs in the lab for diabetes research.

Adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (Ad-MSCs) can be a potential source of MSCs that differentiate into insulin-producing cells (IPCs). In this protocol, we provide detailed steps for the isolation and characterization of rat epididymal Ad-MSCs, followed by a simple, short protocol for the generation of IPCs from the same rat Ad-MSCs.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-especially those isolated from adipose tissue (Ad-MSCs)-have gained special attention as a renewable, abundant source of ...