Name: obtention of giant unilamellar hybrid vesicles by electroformation and measurement of their mechanical properties by micropipette aspiration
Uploaded: 2020-01-19T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Obtention of Giant Unilamellar Hybrid Vesicles by Electroformation and Measurement of their Mechanical Properties by Micropipette Aspiration at JoVE.com

The authors gratefully acknowledge the ANR for financial support (ANR Sysa).

1. Fabricating micropipettes
NOTE: Here, micropipettes with an inner diameter ranging from 6 to 12 &#181;m and a taper length around 3-4 mm are necessary. A detailed method of manufacturing micropipette is described in the following.
<ol>
	<li>Place the borosilicate glass capillary in the drawbar of the puller and fix one of the ends by tightening the knob.</li>
	<li>Carefully slide the glass through the holes at the side of the heater chamber.</li>
	<li>Tighten down the clamping knob at the...

<ol>
	<li>Bangham, A. D., Standish, M. M., Watkins, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diffusion+of+univalent+ions+across+the+lamellae+of+swollen+phospholipids.">Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids.</a> Journal of Molecular Biology. 13 (1), (1965).</li><li>Discher, D. E., Eisenberg, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymer+vesicles.">Polymer vesicles.</a> Science. 297 (5583), 967-973 (2002).</li><li>Hammer, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymersomes:+vesicles+from+block+copolymers.">Polymersomes: vesicles from block copolymers.</a> Annals of Biomedical Engineering. 28 (SUPPL. 1), (2000).</li><li>Le Meins, J. F., Schatz, C., Lecommandoux, S., Sandre, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hybrid+polymer/lipid+vesicles:+state+of+the+art+and+future+perspectives.">Hybrid polymer/lipid vesicles: state of the art and future perspectives.</a> Materials Today. 16 (10), 397-402 (2013).</li><li>Schulz, M., Binder, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mixed+Hybrid+Lipid/Polymer+Vesicles+as+a+Novel+Membrane+Platform.">Mixed Hybrid Lipid/Polymer Vesicles as a Novel Membrane Platform.</a> Macromolecular Rapid Communications. 36, 2031-2041 (2015).</li><li>Schneider, M. B., Jenkins, J. T., Webb, W. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+fluctuations+of+large+quasi-spherical+bimolecular+phospholipid+vesicles.">Thermal fluctuations of large quasi-spherical bimolecular phospholipid vesicles.</a> Journal De Physique. 45 (9), 1457-1472 (1984).</li><li>Dimova, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+developments+in+the+field+of+bending+rigidity+measurements+on+membranes.">Recent developments in the field of bending rigidity measurements on membranes.</a> Advances in Colloid and Interface Science. 208, 225-234 (2014).</li><li>Rodr&#237;guez-Garc&#237;a, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymersomes:+smart+vesicles+of+tunable+rigidity+and+permeability.">Polymersomes: smart vesicles of tunable rigidity and permeability.</a> Soft Matter. 7 (4), 1532-1542 (2011).</li><li>Angelova, M. I., Dimitrov, D. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Liposome+electroformation.">Liposome electroformation.</a> Faraday Discussions of the Chemical Society. 81, 303-311 (1986).</li><li>Dao, T. P. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Membrane+properties+of+giant+polymer+and+lipid+vesicles+obtained+by+electroformation+and+pva+gel-assisted+hydration+methods.">Membrane properties of giant polymer and lipid vesicles obtained by electroformation and pva gel-assisted hydration methods.</a> Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 533, 347-353 (2017).</li><li>Pereno, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electroformation+of+Giant+Unilamellar+Vesicles+on+Stainless+Steel+Electrodes.">Electroformation of Giant Unilamellar Vesicles on Stainless Steel Electrodes.</a> ACS omega. 2 (3), 994-1002 (2017).</li><li>Evans, E., Rawicz, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Entropy-driven+tension+and+bending+elasticity+in+condensed-fluid+membranes.">Entropy-driven tension and bending elasticity in condensed-fluid membranes.</a> Physical Review Letters. 64 (17), 2094-2097 (1990).</li><li>Dao, T. P. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modulation+of+phase+separation+at+the+micron+scale+and+nanoscale+in+giant+polymer/lipid+hybrid+unilamellar+vesicles+(GHUVs).">Modulation of phase separation at the micron scale and nanoscale in giant polymer/lipid hybrid unilamellar vesicles (GHUVs).</a> Soft Matter. 13 (3), 627-637 (2017).</li><li>Helfrich, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elastic+properties+of+lipid+bilayers:+theory+and+possible+experiments.">Elastic properties of lipid bilayers: theory and possible experiments.</a> Z Naturforsch C. 11 (11), 693-703 (1973).</li><li>Dao, T. P. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+combination+of+block+copolymers+and+phospholipids+to+form+giant+hybrid+unilamellar+vesicles+(GHUVs)+does+not+systematically+lead+to+&amp;#34;intermediate''+membrane+properties.">The combination of block copolymers and phospholipids to form giant hybrid unilamellar vesicles (GHUVs) does not systematically lead to &amp;#34;intermediate'' membrane properties.</a> Soft Matter. 14 (31), 6476-6484 (2018).</li><li>Shoemaker, S. D., Kyle Vanderlick, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Material+Studies+of+Lipid+Vesicles+in+the+L&#945;+and+L&#945;-Gel+Coexistence+Regimes.">Material Studies of Lipid Vesicles in the L&#945; and L&#945;-Gel Coexistence Regimes.</a> Biophysical Journal. 84 (2), 998-1009 (2003).</li><li>Longo, M. L., Ly, H. V., Dopico, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Methods in Membrane Lipids. , 421-437 (2007).</li><li>Chen, D., Santore, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hybrid+copolymer-phospholipid+vesicles:+phase+separation+resembling+mixed+phospholipid+lamellae,+but+with+mechanical+stability+and+control.">Hybrid copolymer-phospholipid vesicles: phase separation resembling mixed phospholipid lamellae, but with mechanical stability and control.</a> Soft Matter. 11 (13), 2617-2626 (2015).</li><li>Mabrouk, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+and+material+properties+of+giant+liquid+crystal+polymersomes.">Formation and material properties of giant liquid crystal polymersomes.</a> Soft Matter. 5, 1870-1878 (2009).</li><li>Henriksen, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Universal+behavior+of+membranes+with+sterols.">Universal behavior of membranes with sterols.</a> Biophysical Journal. 90 (5), 1639-1649 (2006).</li><li>Ly, H. V., Block, D. E., Longo, M. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interfacial+Tension+Effect+of+Ethanol+on+Lipid+Bilayer+Rigidity,+Stability,+and+Area/Molecule:&#8201;+A+Micropipet+Aspiration+Approach.">Interfacial Tension Effect of Ethanol on Lipid Bilayer Rigidity, Stability, and Area/Molecule:&#8201; A Micropipet Aspiration Approach.</a> Langmuir. 18 (23), 8988-8995 (2002).</li><li>Bermudez, H., Hammer, D. A., Discher, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Bilayer+Thickness+on+Membrane+Bending+Rigidity.">Effect of Bilayer Thickness on Membrane Bending Rigidity.</a> Langmuir. 20, 540-543 (2004).</li></ol>

The coating of the micropipette is one of the key points to obtain reliable measurements. Adhesion of the vesicle to the micropipette must be prevented, and a coating is commonly used in literature17,18,19,20,21, with BSA, &#946;-casein or surfasil. Details of the coating procedure are rarely mentioned.
Dissolution of the BSA should...

Giant vesicles obtained from phospholipids (liposomes) have been widely used since the 1970s as the basic cell membrane model1. In the late 1990s, vesicular morphologies obtained from the self-assembly of copolymers, named polymersomes in reference to their lipid analogs2,3, rapidly appeared as an interesting alternative to liposomes that possess weak mechanical stability and poor modular chemical functionality. However, their cell biomimetic character is rather limited compared to liposomes since the latter are composed of phospholipids, the main component of the cell membrane. Furthermore, their low membrane permeability can be an issue in some applications like drug delivery where controlled diffusion of species through the membrane is required. Recently, the association of phospholipids with block copolymers to design hybrid polymer-lipid vesicles and membranes has been the subject of an increasing number of studies4,5. The main idea is to design entities that synergistically combine the benefits of each component (bio-functionality and permeability of lipid bilayers with the mechanical stability and chemical versatility of polymer membranes), which can be exploited in different applications: controlled and targeted drug delivery, biomolecular recognition within biosensors for diagnosis, functional membranes for artificial cells, development of bio-inspired micro-/nano-reactors.
Nowadays, different scientific communities (biochemists, chemists, biophysicists, physico-chemists, biologists) have increasing interest in development of a more advanced cell membrane model. Here, our goal is to present, as detailed as possible, existing methodologies (electroformation, micropipette aspiration) to obtain and characterize the mechanical properties of giant vesicles and the recent &#34;advanced&#34; cell membrane models that are hybrid polymer lipid giant vesicles4,5.
The purpose of these methods is to obtain reliable measurement of the area compressibility and bending moduli of the membrane as well as their lysis stress and strain. One of the most common techniques existing to measure bending rigidity of a giant vesicle is fluctuation analysis6,7, based on direct video microscope observation; but this requires large visible membrane fluctuation, and is not systematically obtained on thick membranes (e.g. polymersomes). Area compressibility modulus can be experimentally determined using the Langmuir Blodgett technique but most often on a monolayer8. The micropipette aspiration technique allows the measurement of both moduli on a bilayer forming giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) in one experiment.
The following method is appropriate for all amphiphilic molecules or macromolecules able to form bilayers and, consequently, vesicles by electroformation. This requires a fluid character of the bilayer at the temperature of electroformation.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Required equipment and materials for micropipette design</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate Glass Capillaries</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>1B100-4</td>
			<td>external and internal diameter of 1mm and 0.58 mm respectively.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filament installed</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument Co.</td>
			<td>FB255B</td>
			<td>2.5mm*2.5mm Box Filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument Co.</td>
			<td>Model P-97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microforge</td>
			<td>NARISHGE Co.</td>
			<td>MF-900</td>
			<td>fitted with two objectives (10x and 32x)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials for coating pipette tips with BSA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin Fraction V (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>10735078001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable 1 ml syringe Luer Tip</td>
			<td>Codan</td>
			<td>62.1612</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable 10 ml syringe Luer Tip</td>
			<td>Codan</td>
			<td>626616</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable 5 ml syringe Luer Tip</td>
			<td>Codan</td>
			<td>62.5607</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable acetate cellulose filter</td>
			<td>Cluzeau Info Labo</td>
			<td>L5003SPA</td>
			<td>Pore size: 0.22&#181;m, diameter: 25mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flexible Fused Silica Capillary Tubing</td>
			<td>Polymicro Technologies.</td>
			<td>TSP530660</td>
			<td>Inner Diameter 536&#181;m, Outer Diameter 660&#181;m,</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G5767</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe 500 &#181;L luer Lock GASTIGHT</td>
			<td>Hamilton Syringe Company</td>
			<td>1750</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Test tube rotatory mixer</td>
			<td>Labinco</td>
			<td>28210109</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulation Set up</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminum Optical Rail, 1000 mm Length, M4 threads, X48 Series</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Damped Optical Table</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>used as support of microscope to prevent external vibrations.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>Patchman NP 2</td>
			<td>The module unit (motor unit for X, Y and Z movement) is mounted on the inverted microscope by the way of an adapter.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micrometer</td>
			<td>Mitutoyo Corporation</td>
			<td>350-354-10</td>
			<td>Digimatic LCD Micrometer Head 25,4 mm Range 0,001 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plexiglass water reservoir (100 ml)</td>
			<td>Home made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TCS SP5 inverted confocal microscope (DMI6000) equipped with a resonant scanner and a water immersion objective (HCX APO L 40x/0.80 WU-V-I).</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X48 Rail Carrier 80 mm Length,with 1/4-20, 8-32 and 4-40 thread</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials for sucrose and amphiphile solution preparation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td><a href="https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/substance/2oleoyl1palmitoylsnglycero3phosphocholine760082685331611" target="_blank">2-Oleoyl-1-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine</a></td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>22711.244</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-&#945;-Phosphatidylethanolamine-N-(lissamine rhodamine B sulfonyl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>810146C</td>
			<td>Rhodamine tagged lipid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7903</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electroformation set up</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 &#181;L glass capillary ringcaps</td>
			<td>Hirschmann</td>
			<td>9600110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable 1 ml syringe Luer Tip</td>
			<td>Codan</td>
			<td>62.1612</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H Grease</td>
			<td>Apiezon</td>
			<td>Apiezon H Grease</td>
			<td>Silicon-free grease</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Indium tin oxide coated glass slides</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>703184</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle</td>
			<td>Terumo</td>
			<td>AN2138R1</td>
			<td>0.8 x 38 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ohmmeter (Multimeter)</td>
			<td>Voltcraft</td>
			<td>VC140</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Toluene</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>28676.297</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Voltage generator</td>
			<td>Keysight</td>
			<td>33210A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

obtention of giant unilamellar hybrid vesicles by electroformation and measurement of their mechanical properties by micropipette aspiration

Giant vesicles obtained from phospholipids and copolymers can be exploited in different applications: controlled and targeted drug delivery, biomolecular recognition within biosensors for diagnosis, functional membranes for artificial cells, and development of bioinspired micro/nano-reactors. In all of these applications, the characterization of their membrane properties is of fundamental importance. Among existing characterization techniques, micropipette aspiration, pioneered by E. Evans, allows the measurement of mechanical properties of the membrane such as area compressibility modulus, bending modulus and lysis stress and strain. Here, we present all the methodologies and detailed procedures to obtain giant vesicles from the thin film of a lipid or copolymer (or both), the manufacturing and surface treatment of micropipettes, and the aspiration procedure leading to the measurement of all the parameters previously mentioned.

With the protocol aforementioned, we have studied different synthetic giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV), obtained from a phospholipid: 2-oleoyl-1-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), a triblock copolymer: Poly(ethyleneoxide)-b-Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-Poly(ethyleneoxide) (PEO12-b-PDMS43-b-PEO12) synthesized in a previous study13, and a diblock copolymer Poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Obtention of Giant Unilamellar Hybrid Vesicles by Electroformation and Measurement of their Mechanical Properties by Micropipette Aspiration at JoVE.com

Obtention of Giant Unilamellar Hybrid Vesicles by Electroformation and Measurement of their Mechanical Properties by Micropipette Aspiration

The goal of the protocol is to reliably measure membrane mechanical properties of giant vesicles by micropipette aspiration.

Giant vesicles obtained from phospholipids and copolymers can be exploited in different applications: controlled and targeted drug delivery, biomolecular ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Fabricating Nanogaps by Nanoskiving

There are several methods of fabricating nanogaps with controlled spacings, but the precise control over the sub-nanometer spacing between two ...

Synthesis of Non-uniformly Pr-doped SrTiO3 Ceramics and Their Thermoelectric Properties

Synthesis of Non-uniformly Pr-doped SrTiO3 Ceramics and Their Thermoelectric Properties

We demonstrate a novel synthesis strategy for the preparation of Pr-doped SrTiO3 ceramics via a combination of solid state reaction and spark plasma ...

Synthesis, Characterization, and Functionalization of Hybrid Au/CdS and Au/ZnS Core/Shell Nanoparticles

Plasmonic nanoparticles are an attractive material for light harvesting applications due to their easily modified surface, high surface area and large ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Fe-doped Aluminosilicate Nanotubes with Enhanced Electron Conductive Properties

The goal of the protocol is to synthesize Fe-doped aluminosilicate nanotubes of the imogolite type with the formula (OH)3Al2-xFexO3SiOH. Doping with Fe ...

Measurement of Particle Size Distribution in Turbid Solutions by Dynamic Light Scattering Microscopy

A protocol for measuring polydispersity of concentrated polymer solutions using dynamic light scattering is described. Dynamic light scattering is a ...

TiO2-coated Hollow Glass Microspheres with Superhydrophobic and High IR-reflective Properties Synthesized by a Soft-chemistry Method

TiO2-coated Hollow Glass Microspheres with Superhydrophobic and High IR-reflective Properties Synthesized by a Soft-chemistry Method

This manuscript proposes a soft-chemistry method to develop superhydrophobic and highly IR-reflective hollow glass microspheres (HGM). The anatase TiO2 ...

Fabrication and Testing of Photonic Thermometers

In recent years, a push for developing novel silicon photonic devices for telecommunications has generated a vast knowledge base that is now being ...

Preparation and Characterization of C60/Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures

Preparation and Characterization of C60/Graphene Hybrid Nanostructures

Physical thermal deposition in a high vacuum environment is a clean and controllable method for fabricating novel molecular nanostructures on graphene. We ...

Membrane Remodeling of Giant Vesicles in Response to Localized Calcium Ion Gradients

In a wide variety of fundamental cell processes, such as membrane trafficking and apoptosis, cell membrane shape transitions occur concurrently with local ...

Disentangling High Strength Copolymer Aramid Fibers to Enable the Determination of Their Mechanical Properties

Traditionally, soft body armor has been made from poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA) and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene. However, to ...