Name: visualizing astrocyte morphology using lucifer yellow iontophoresis
Uploaded: 2019-09-14T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Astrocyte Morphology Using Lucifer Yellow Iontophoresis at JoVE.com

The authors thank Ms. Soto, Dr. Yu, and Dr. Octeau for guidance as well as comments on the text. This work is supported by NS060677.

The animal experiments in this study were performed in accordance with the National Institute of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and were approved by the Chancellor&#39;s Animal Research Committee at the University of California, Los Angeles. Adult mice (6&#8722;8 weeks old) of mixed gender were used in all experiments.
1. Solution Preparation
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	<li>Artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) solution
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		<li>Prepare fresh ACSF solution (135 mM NaCl...

<ol>
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E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cadherin-9+regulates+synapse-specific+differentiation+in+the+developing+hippocampus.">Cadherin-9 regulates synapse-specific differentiation in the developing hippocampus.</a> Neuron. 71 (4), 640-655 (2011).</li><li>Ogata, K., Kosaka, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+quantitative+analysis+of+astrocytes+in+the+mouse+hippocampus.">Structural and quantitative analysis of astrocytes in the mouse hippocampus.</a> Neuroscience. 113 (1), 221-233 (2002).</li><li>Gage, G. J., Kipke, D. R., Shain, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+animal+perfusion+fixation+for+rodents.">Whole animal perfusion fixation for rodents.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (65), e3564 (2012).</li><li>Hubbard, J. A., Hsu, M. S., Seldin, M. M., Binder, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+the+Astrocyte+Water+Channel+Aquaporin-4+in+the+Mouse+Brain.">Expression of the Astrocyte Water Channel Aquaporin-4 in the Mouse Brain.</a> ASN Neuro. 7 (5), (2015).</li><li>Benediktsson, A. 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The method outlined in this paper describes a way to visualize astrocyte morphology using intracellular iontophoresis of LY dye in lightly fixed brain slices. There are several critical factors highlighted in this protocol that contribute to successful LY iontophoresis and morphological reconstruction of the cells. One factor is the quality and reproducibility of the images, which is determined largely by the age of the mouse and the outcome of the perfusion. In this study, we used C57/BL6N mice 6&#8722;8 weeks old. A su...

Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS). They play roles in ion homeostasis, blood flow regulation, synapse formation as well as elimination, and neurotransmitter uptake1. The wide range of astrocyte functions is reflected in their complex morphological structure2,3. Astrocytes contain several primary and secondary branches which divide into thousands of finer branchlets and leaflets that directly interact with synapses, dendrites, axons, blood vessels, and other glial cells. Astrocyte morphology varies across different brain regions, which may hint at their ability to perform their functions differentially in neuronal circuits4. Moreover, astrocytes are known to alter their morphology during development, during physiological conditions, and in multiple disease states3,5,6.
A consistent, reproducible method is needed to accurately resolve the complexity of astrocyte morphology. Traditionally, immunohistochemistry has been used to visualize astrocytes with the use of astrocyte specific or astrocyte enriched protein markers. However, these methods reveal the pattern of protein expression rather than the structure of the astrocyte. The commonly used markers, such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and S100 calcium binding protein &#946; (S100&#946;), do not express in the entire cell volume and thus do not resolve complete morphology7. Genetic approaches to express fluorescent proteins ubiquitously in astrocytes (viral injections or transgenic mouse reporter lines) can identify the finer branches and overall territory. However, it is difficult to differentiate individual astrocytes, and analyses may be biased by the astrocyte population targeted by the specific promoter8. Serial section electron microscopy has been used to reveal a detailed picture of the interactions of astrocyte processes with synapses. Due to the thousands of astrocyte processes contacting synapses, it is currently not possible to reconstruct an entire cell with this technique9, although this is expected to change with the use of machine learning approaches for data analysis.
In this report, we focus on a procedure to characterize mouse astrocytes using intracellular iontophoresis with Lucifer yellow (LY) dye, using the CA1 stratum radiatum as an example. The method is based on pioneering past work by Eric Bushong and Mark Ellisman10,11. Astrocytes from lightly fixed brain slices are identified by their distinctive soma shape and filled with LY. The cells are then imaged with confocal microscopy. We demonstrate how LY iontophoresis can be used to reconstruct individual astrocytes and perform detailed morphological analyses of their processes and territory. Also, this method can be applied in conjunction with immunohistochemistry to identify spatial relationships and interactions between astrocytes and neurons, other glial cells, and brain vasculature. We consider LY iontophoresis to be a very suitable tool to analyze morphology in different brain regions and mouse models of healthy or disease conditions7,12,13.&#160;

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:995px;" width="994">
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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">10% Buffered Formalin Phosphate</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">SF 100-20</td>
			<td style="width:240px;">An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Acrodisc Syringe Filters with Supor Membrane</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Pall</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">4692</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ag/AgCl ground pellet</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>EP2</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Alexa Fluor 546 goat anti-chicken IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>A-11040</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Alexa Fluor 647 goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>A27040</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Anti Aquaporin-4 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Novus Biologicals</td>
			<td>NBP1-87679</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Anti GFAP antibody</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Abcam</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">ab4674</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Borosilicate glass pipettes with filament</td>
			<td>World precision instruments</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">1B150F-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">C57BL/6NTac mice</td>
			<td>Taconic Stock</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">B6</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>21108</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Confocal laser-scanning microscope</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">FV1000MPE</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">D-glucose</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>G7528</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Disodium Phosphate</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>255793</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Electrode puller- Model P-97</td>
			<td>Sutter</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">P-97</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Fluoromount-G</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Southern Biotech</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">0100-01</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Heparin sodium injection (1,000 USP per mL)</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sagent Pharmaceuticals</td>
			<td>400-10</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Imaris software (Version 7.6.5)</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Bitplane Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:196px;"></td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Isofluorane</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Henry Schein Animal Health</td>
			<td>29404</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Lidocaine Hydrochloride Injectable (2%)</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Clipper</td>
			<td>1050035</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Lucifer Yellow CH dilithium salt</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>L0259</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Lucifer Yellow CH dipotassium salt</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>L0144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>M8266</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">24X60-1</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Microscope Slides</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">12-544-2</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Normal Goat Serum</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>S-1000</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Objective lens (40x)</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">LUMPLFLN 40XW</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Objective lens (60x)</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>PlanAPO 60X</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">PBS tablets, 100 mL</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">VWR</td>
			<td>VWRVE404</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">Pipette micromanipulator- Model ROE-200</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sutter</td>
			<td>MP-285 / ROE-200 / MPC-200</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>P3911</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium Bicarbonate</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>S5886</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Stimulator- Model Omnical 2010</td>
			<td>World precision instruments</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Omnical 2010</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:367px;">Triton X 100</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">T8787</td>
			<td>An identical alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Vibratome- Model #3000</td>
			<td style="width:192px;">Pelco</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">100-S</td>
			<td>A similar alternative can be used</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualizing astrocyte morphology using lucifer yellow iontophoresis

Astrocytes are essential components of neural circuits. They tile the entire central nervous system (CNS) and are involved in a variety of functions, which include neurotransmitter clearance, ion regulation, synaptic modulation, metabolic support to neurons, and blood flow regulation. Astrocytes are complex cells that have a soma, several major branches, and numerous fine processes that contact diverse cellular elements within the neuropil. In order to assess the morphology of astrocytes, it is necessary to have a reliable and reproducible method to visualize their structure. We report a reliable&#160;protocol to perform intracellular iontophoresis of astrocytes using fluorescent Lucifer yellow (LY) dye in lightly fixed brain tissue from adult mice. This method has several features that are useful to characterize astrocyte morphology. It allows for three-dimensional reconstruction of individual astrocytes, which is useful to perform morphological analyses on different aspects of their structure. Immunohistochemistry together with LY iontophoresis can also be utilized to understand the interaction of astrocytes with different components of nervous system and to evaluate the expression of proteins within the labelled astrocytes. This protocol can be implemented in a variety of mouse models of CNS disorders to rigorously examine astrocyte morphology with light microscopy. LY iontophoresis provides an experimental approach to evaluate astrocyte structure, especially in the context of injury or disease where these cells are proposed to undergo significant morphological changes.

The data reported in this study are from 7&#8722;12 cells from 4 mice in each experiment. Average data are reported in the figure panels where appropriate.
To assess astrocyte morphology, we performed intracellular iontophoresis using LY dye to fill astrocytes in the CA1 stratum radiatum, which is summarized in Figure 1. Figure 2 depicts a representative astrocyte and its elaborate morphological structure. The cell was imaged post-fixation with th...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Astrocyte Morphology Using Lucifer Yellow Iontophoresis at JoVE.com

Visualizing Astrocyte Morphology Using Lucifer Yellow Iontophoresis

Astrocytes are morphologically complex cells, exemplified by their multiple processes and bushy territories. To analyze their elaborate morphology, we present a reliable protocol to perform intracellular Lucifer yellow iontophoresis in lightly fixed tissue.

Astrocytes are essential components of neural circuits. They tile the entire central nervous system (CNS) and are involved in a variety of functions, ...

This method can be used to facilitate the visualization of very fine astrocyte processes for the evaluation of astrocyte neuronal interactions at the synapse during disease and steady states. This technique can also be applied in any mouse model, cell population, or brain region. To prepare a sharp electrode with an appropriate resistance, pull a borosilicate glass single barrel electrode with a filament on a micropipette puller.Store the pulled electrodes in a closed container to prevent dust from entering the tips and keep the electrodes elevated from the bottom of the box to prevent the tips from breaking. To fill an electrode with lucifer yellow dye solution, place an electrode in the vertical position with the tip facing downward, and pipette one to two microliters of lucifer yellow solution into the back of the electrode. Wait five to 10 minutes for the solution to move to the tip via capillary action before gently securing the filled electrode in an electrode holder connected to a manipulator with the silver wire of the electrode holder in contact with the lucifer yellow inside the electrode.For the dye ejection test, gently place a lightly fixed brain slice into a glass bottom dish filled with 0.1 molar PBS at room temperature and hold the slice in place with a platinum harp with nylon strings. Connect the electrode to a voltage source and place the ground electrode into the bath containing the brain slice. Move the objective of a confocal microscope to the brain region of interest and lower the electrode into the solution using the 10X water immersion lens, moving the electrode to the center of the field of view.Under bright-field illumination, examine the electrode carefully with the 40X water immersion lens to ensure that the electrode appears clear and without debris or bubbles. Switch to confocal laser scanning microscopy with a 488-nanometer laser. Turn on the stimulator at 12 volts to test the dye ejection.A large fluorescent dye cloud should be visible around the tip of the electrode. Then, under bright-field slowly lower the electrode toward the slice, stopping just above the surface. To fill an astrocyte of interest with iontophoresis, use the infrared differential interference contrast to identify astrocytes with elongated oval-shaped somata about 10 micrometers in diameter, 40 to 50 micrometers below the slice surface.This is the stratum radiatum of the hippocampus directly below the pyramidal cell layer. As we move through the tissue, we can see blood vessels, neurons, astrocytes, and other cell types. Once an astrocyte has been selected, move the cell to the center of the field of view and slowly lower the electrode tip into the slice, navigating through the tissue until the electrode is on the same plain as the cell body.Once the cell body of the astrocyte is clearly visible and outlined, slowly and gently advance the electrode forward, moving the electrode until the tip impales the soma of the cell. Move the focus of the objective slowly up and down to note if the electrode is inside the soma. Once the electrode tip is inside the cell, turn on the stimulator at 0.5 to one volts to continuously eject current into the cell.Using the confocal microscope, watch the cell film, increasing the digital zoom to visualize the details of the cell and to make sure that the tip of the electrode is visible inside the cell as necessary. Wait for about 15 minutes until the finer branches and processes appear defined before turning off the voltage and gently withdrawing the electrode tip from the cell. To image the filled cell, wait 15 to 20 minutes for the cell to return to its original form before adjusting the setting on the confocal microscope to make sure that the finer branches and processes appear defined under the 40X objective.Set up a Z stack with a step size of 0.3 micrometers, moving the objective while imaging until there is no signal from the cell and set that step as the top. Then move the objective down, focusing through the cell until there is no signal and set that step as the bottom. After the imaging is complete, check the electrode for dye ejection.If a large dye cloud appears, the electrode can be used for the next slice. Otherwise, replace the electrode. By generating a maximum intensity projection, a detailed view of the structure of an astrocyte in its domain can be observed.A four X magnitude zoom into the astrocyte reveals a maximum intensity projection of one major branch, several secondary branches, and the distribution of the surrounding branchlets and leaflets. Here, the original image of a CA1 astrocyte is shown. The cell body, major branches, processes, and territory volume enclosed by the astrocyte are reconstructed in these subsequent images.After the reconstructions were created, the volumes of the soma, entire cell, and territory were quantified. And the number of major branches were counted. As cytoskeletal protein that labels intermediate astrocyte filaments is expressed in the cell soma, major branches, and some secondary astrocyte branches, but not in the finer branches and processes.In this representative analysis, no significant differences were found in the number of primary branches labeled by glial fibrillary acidic protein and those visualize by lucifer yellow. Further, the cell area and volume of the astrocyte labeled by glial fibrillary acidic protein were significantly smaller than the area and volume visualized with lucifer yellow, demonstrating that glial fibrillary acidic protein is a reliable marker for labeling major branches but is not useful for determining the overall area or volume of the cell. The amount of dye released from the electrode tip is dependent on the electrode resistance which must be high enough to allow a steady stream of dye to be ejected.Future studies can examine the different components of astrocyte structure by super resolution light microscopy or by immunohistochemical analysis of the expression of specific proteins within the astrocyte structure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Screening Assay for Oxidative Stress in a Feline Astrocyte Cell Line, G355-5

An often-suggested mechanism of virus induced neuronal damage is oxidative stress. Astrocytes have an important role in controlling oxidative stress of the Central Nervous System (CNS). Astrocytes help maintain a homeostatic environment for neurons as well as protecting neurons from Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). CM-H2DCFDA is a cell-permeable indicator for the presence of ROS. CM-H2DCFDA enters the cell as a non-fluorescent compound, and becomes fluorescent after cellular esterases remove the acetate groups, and the compound is oxidized. The number of cells, measured by flow cytometry, that are found to be green fluorescing is an indication of the number of cells that are in an oxidative state. CM-H2DCFDA is susceptible to oxidation by a large number of different ROS. This lack of specificity, regarding which ROS can oxidize CM-H2DCFDA, makes this compound a valuable regent for use in the early stages of a pathogenesis investigation, as this assay can be used to screen for an oxidative cellular environment regardless of which oxygen radical or combination of ROS are responsible for the cellular conditions. Once it has been established that ROS are present by oxidation of CM-H2DCFDA, then additional experiments can be performed to determine which ROS or combination of ROSs are involved in the particular pathogenesis process. The results of this study demonstrate that with the addition of hydrogen peroxide an increase in CM-H2DCFDA fluoresce was detected relative to the saline controls, indicating that this assay is a valuable test for detecting an oxidative environment within G355-5 cells, a feline astrocyte cell line.

A screening method to detect oxidative cellular environments is to measure the oxidation of CM-H2DCFDA. Once oxidized within a cell, CM-H2DCFDA changes from non-fluorescent into a fluorescent compound. This change in fluorescence is measured by flow cytometry and indicates the number of cells in an oxidative environment.

An often-suggested mechanism of virus induced neuronal damage is oxidative stress. Astrocytes have an important role in controlling oxidative stress of ...

Visualizing the Effects of a Positive Early Experience, Tactile Stimulation, on Dendritic Morphology and Synaptic Connectivity with Golgi-Cox Staining

To generate longer-term changes in behavior, experiences must be producing stable changes in neuronal morphology and synaptic connectivity. Tactile stimulation is a positive early experience that mimics maternal licking and grooming in the rat. Exposing rat pups to this positive experience can be completed easily and cost-effectively by using highly accessible materials such as a household duster. Using a cross-litter design, pups are either stroked or left undisturbed, for 15 min, three times per day throughout the perinatal period. To measure the neuroplastic changes related to this positive early experience, Golgi-Cox staining of brain tissue is utilized. Owing to the fact that Golgi-Cox impregnation stains a discrete number of neurons rather than all of the cells, staining of the rodent brain with Golgi-Cox solution permits the visualization of entire neuronal elements, including the cell body, dendrites, axons, and dendritic spines. The staining procedure is carried out over several days and requires that the researcher pay close attention to detail. However, once staining is completed, the entire brain has been impregnated and can be preserved indefinitely for ongoing analysis. Therefore, Golgi-Cox staining is a valuable resource for studying experience-dependent plasticity.

This paper describes the procedures for tactile stimulation of rat pups and subsequent Golgi-Cox staining of neuronal morphology. Tactile stimulation is a positive experience that is administered in the perinatal period by stroking pups with a household duster. Golgi-cox staining is a reliable procedure permitting the visualization of entire neurons.

To generate longer-term changes in behavior, experiences must be producing stable changes in neuronal morphology and synaptic connectivity. Tactile ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

The Indirect Neuron-astrocyte Coculture Assay: An In Vitro Set-up for the Detailed Investigation of Neuron-glia Interactions

Proper neuronal development and function is the prerequisite of the developing and the adult brain. However, the mechanisms underlying the highly controlled formation and maintenance of complex neuronal networks are not completely understood thus far. The open questions concerning neurons in health and disease are diverse and reaching from understanding the basic development to investigating human related pathologies, e.g.,&#160;Alzheimer&#39;s disease and&#160;Schizophrenia. The most detailed analysis of neurons can be performed in vitro. However, neurons are demanding cells and need the additional support of astrocytes for their long-term survival. This cellular heterogeneity is in conflict with the aim to dissect the analysis of neurons and astrocytes. We present here a cell-culture assay that allows for the long-term cocultivation of pure primary neurons and astrocytes, which share the same chemically defined medium, while being physically separated. In this setup, the cultures survive for up to four weeks and the assay is suitable for a diversity of investigations concerning neuron-glia interaction.

The Indirect Neuron-astrocyte Coculture Assay: An In Vitro Set-up for the Detailed Investigation of Neuron-glia Interactions

This protocol describes the indirect neuron-astrocyte coculture for compartmentalized analysis of neuron-glia interactions.

Proper neuronal development and function is the prerequisite of the developing and the adult brain. However, the mechanisms underlying the highly ...

Monitoring Astrocyte Reactivity and Proliferation in Vitro Under Ischemic-Like Conditions

Ischemic stroke is a complex brain injury caused by a thrombus or embolus obstructing blood flow to parts of the brain. This leads to deprivation of oxygen and glucose, which causes energy failure and neuronal death. After an ischemic stroke insult, astrocytes become reactive and proliferate around the injury site as it develops. Under this scenario, it is difficult to study the specific contribution of astrocytes to the brain region exposed to ischemia. Therefore, this article introduces a methodology to study primary astrocyte reactivity and proliferation under an in vitro model of an ischemia-like environment, called oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD). Astrocytes were isolated from 1-4 day-old neonatal rats and the number of non-specific astrocytic cells was assessed using astrocyte selective marker Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) and nuclear staining. The period in which astrocytes are subjected to the OGD condition can be customized, as well as the percentage of oxygen they are exposed to. This flexibility allows scientists to characterize the duration of the ischemic-like condition in different groups of cells in vitro. This article discusses the timeframes of OGD that induce astrocyte reactivity, hypertrophic morphology, and proliferation as measured by immunofluorescence using Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA). Besides proliferation, astrocytes undergo energy and oxidative stress, and respond to OGD by releasing soluble factors into the cell medium. This medium can be collected and used to analyze the effects of molecules released by astrocytes in primary neuronal cultures without cell-to-cell interaction. In summary, this primary cell culture model can be efficiently used to understand the role of isolated astrocytes upon injury.

Monitoring Astrocyte Reactivity and Proliferation in Vitro Under Ischemic-Like Conditions

Ischemic stroke is a complex event in which the specific contribution of astrocytes to the affected brain region exposed to oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) is difficult to study. This article introduces a methodology to obtain isolated astrocytes and study their reactivity and proliferation under OGD conditions.

Ischemic stroke is a complex brain injury caused by a thrombus or embolus obstructing blood flow to parts of the brain. This leads to deprivation of ...

Analyzing Dendritic Morphology in Columns and Layers

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and columns to facilitate brain wiring during development and information processing in developed animals. Postsynaptic neurons elaborate dendrites in type-specific patterns in specific layers to synapse with appropriate presynaptic terminals. The fly medulla neuropil is composed of 10 layers and about 750 columns; each column is innervated by dendrites of over 38 types of medulla neurons, which match with the axonal terminals of some 7 types of afferents in a type-specific fashion. This report details the procedures to image and analyze dendrites of medulla neurons. The workflow includes three sections: (i) the dual-view imaging section combines two confocal image stacks collected at orthogonal orientations into a high-resolution 3D image of dendrites; (ii) the dendrite tracing and registration section traces dendritic arbors in 3D and registers dendritic traces to the reference column array; (iii) the dendritic analysis section analyzes dendritic patterns with respect to columns and layers, including layer-specific termination and planar projection direction of dendritic arbors, and derives estimates of dendritic branching and termination frequencies. The protocols utilize custom plugins built on the open-source MIPAV (Medical Imaging Processing, Analysis, and Visualization) platform and custom toolboxes in the matrix laboratory language. Together, these protocols provide a complete workflow to analyze the dendritic routing of Drosophila medulla neurons in layers and columns, to identify cell types, and to determine defects in mutants.

Here, we show how to analyze dendritic routing of Drosophila medulla neurons in columns and layers. The workflow includes a dual-view imaging technique to improve the image quality and computational tools for tracing, registering dendritic arbors to the reference column array and for analyzing the dendritic structures in 3D space.

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and ...

Real-time Iontophoresis with Tetramethylammonium to Quantify Volume Fraction and Tortuosity of Brain Extracellular Space

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the extracellular space (ECS) of the living brain. The ECS surrounds all brain cells and contains both interstitial fluid and extracellular matrix. The transport of many substances required for brain activity, including neurotransmitters, hormones, and nutrients, occurs by diffusion through the ECS. Changes in the volume and geometry of this space occur during normal brain processes, like sleep, and pathological conditions, like ischemia. However, the structure and regulation of brain ECS, particularly in diseased states, remains largely unexplored. The RTI method measures two physical parameters of living brain: volume fraction and tortuosity. Volume fraction is the proportion of tissue volume occupied by ECS. Tortuosity is a measure of the relative hindrance a substance encounters when diffusing through a brain region as compared to a medium with no obstructions. In RTI, an inert molecule is pulsed from a source microelectrode into the brain ECS. As molecules diffuse away from this source, the changing concentration of the ion is measured over time using an ion-selective microelectrode positioned roughly 100 &#181;m away. From the resulting diffusion curve, both volume fraction and tortuosity can be calculated. This technique has been used in brain slices from multiple species (including humans) and in vivo to study acute and chronic changes to ECS. Unlike other methods, RTI can be used to examine both reversible and irreversible changes to the brain ECS in real time.

This protocol describes real-time iontophoresis, a method that measures physical parameters of the extracellular space (ECS) of living brains. The diffusion of an inert molecule released into the ECS is used to calculate the ECS volume fraction and tortuosity. It is ideal for studying acute reversible changes to brain ECS.

This review describes the basic concepts and protocol to perform the real-time iontophoresis (RTI) method, the gold-standard to explore and quantify the ...

Determining Cell-surface Expression and Endocytic Rate of Proteins in Primary Astrocyte Cultures Using Biotinylation

Cell-surface proteins mediate a wide array of functions. In many cases, their activity is regulated by endocytic processes that modulate their levels at the plasma membrane. Here, we present detailed protocols for 2 methods that facilitate the study of such processes, both of which are based on the principle of the biotinylation of cell-surface proteins. The first is designed to allow for the semi-quantitative determination of the relative levels of a particular protein at the cell-surface. In it, the lysine residues of the plasma membrane proteins of cells are first labeled with a biotin moiety. Once the cells are lysed, these proteins may then be specifically precipitated via the use of agarose-immobilized streptavidin by exploiting the natural affinity of the latter for biotin. The proteins isolated in such a manner may then be analyzed via a standard western blotting approach. The second method provides a means of determining the endocytic rate of a particular cell-surface target over a period of time. Cell-surface proteins are first modified with a biotin derivative containing a cleavable disulfide bond. The cells are then shifted back to normal culture conditions, which causes the endocytic uptake of a proportion of biotinylated proteins. Next, the disulfide bonds of non-internalized biotin groups are reduced using the membrane-impermeable reducing agent glutathione. Via this approach, endocytosed proteins may thus be isolated and quantified with a high degree of specificity.

Two biotinylation-based methods, designed for determining the cell-surface expression and endocytic rate of proteins expressed at the plasma membrane, are presented in this report.

Cell-surface proteins mediate a wide array of functions. In many cases, their activity is regulated by endocytic processes that modulate their levels at ...

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major immune cells and only phagocytes in the brain, recent studies have shown that astrocytes also participate in various phagocytic processes, such as developmental synapse elimination and clearance of amyloid beta plaques in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD). Despite these findings, the efficiency of astrocyte engulfment and degradation of their targets is unclear compared with that of microglia. This lack of information is mostly due to the lack of an assay system in which the kinetics of astrocyte- and microglia-mediated phagocytosis are easily comparable. To achieve this goal, we have developed a long-term live-imaging in vitro phagocytosis assay to evaluate the phagocytic capacity of purified astrocytes and microglia. In this assay, real-time detection of engulfment and degradation is possible using pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes, which emit bright red fluorescence in acidic organelles, such as lysosomes. Our novel assay provides simple and effective detection of phagocytosis through live-imaging. In addition, this in vitro phagocytosis assay can be used as a screening platform to identify chemicals and compounds that can enhance or inhibit the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. As synaptic pruning malfunction and pathogenic protein accumulation have been shown to cause mental disorders or neurodegenerative diseases, chemicals and compounds that modulate the phagocytic capacity of glial cells should be helpful in treating various neurological disorders.

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

This protocol presents an in vitro live-imaging phagocytosis assay to measure the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes. Purified rat astrocytes and microglia are used along with pH indicator-conjugated synaptosomes. This method can detect real-time engulfment and degradation kinetics and provides a suitable screening platform to identify factors modulating astrocyte phagocytosis.

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major ...

Quantifying Microglia Morphology from Photomicrographs of Immunohistochemistry Prepared Tissue Using ImageJ

Microglia are brain phagocytes that participate in brain homeostasis and continuously survey their environment for dysfunction, injury, and disease. As the first responders, microglia have important functions to mitigate neuron and glia dysfunction, and in this process, they undergo a broad range of morphologic changes. Microglia morphologies can be categorized descriptively or, alternatively, can be quantified as a continuous variable for parameters such as cell ramification, complexity, and shape. While methods for quantifying microglia are applied to single cells, few techniques apply to multiple microglia in an entire photomicrograph. The purpose of this method is to quantify multiple and single cells using readily available ImageJ protocols. This protocol is a summary of the steps and ImageJ plugins recommended to convert fluorescence and bright-field photomicrographs into representative binary and skeletonized images and to analyze them using software plugins AnalyzeSkeleton (2D/3D) and FracLac for morphology data collection. The outputs of these plugins summarize cell morphology in terms of process endpoints, junctions, and length as well as complexity, cell shape, and size descriptors. The skeleton analysis protocol described herein is well suited for a regional analysis of multiple microglia within an entire photomicrograph or region of interest (ROI) whereas FracLac provides a complementary individual cell analysis. Combined, the protocol provides an objective, sensitive, and comprehensive assessment tool that can be used to stratify between diverse microglia morphologies present in the healthy and injured brain.

Microglia are brain immune cells that survey and react to altered brain physiology through morphologic changes which may be evaluated quantitatively. This protocol outlines an ImageJ based analysis protocol to represent microglia morphology as continuous data according to metrics such as cell ramification, complexity, and shape.

Microglia are brain phagocytes that participate in brain homeostasis and continuously survey their environment for dysfunction, injury, and disease. As ...