We would like to thank the members of the NeuroFit Lab for their ongoing support as we begin to explore the effects of orienteering on brain health and function. This study was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada under grant RGPIN-2022-05298 (to J. J. H.).

Implementing Orienteering for Body and Brain Training 

<ol>
	<li>Eccles, D. W., Walsh, S. E., Ingledew, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+grounded+theory+of+expert+cognition+in+orienteering.">A grounded theory of expert cognition in orienteering.</a> J Sport Exerc Pyschol. 24 (1), 68-88 (2002).</li><li>Waddington, E. E., Heisz, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orienteering+experts+report+more+proficient+spatial+processing+and+memory+across+adulthood.">Orienteering experts report more proficient spatial processing and memory across adulthood.</a> PLoS One. 18 (1), e0280435 (2023).</li><li>Feraco, T., Bonvento, M., Meneghetti, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orienteering:+What+relation+with+visuospatial+abilities,+wayfinding+attitudes,+and+environment+learning.">Orienteering: What relation with visuospatial abilities, wayfinding attitudes, and environment learning.</a> Appl Cogn Psychol. 35 (6), 1592-1599 (2021).</li><li>Eccles, D. W., Arsal, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+do+they+make+it+look+so+easy?+The+expert+orienteer's+cognitive+advantage.">How do they make it look so easy? The expert orienteer's cognitive advantage.</a> J Sports Sci. 33 (6), 609-615 (2015).</li><li>Waddington, E. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orienteering+combines+vigorous-intensity+exercise+with+navigation+to+improve+human+cognition+and+increase+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor.">Orienteering combines vigorous-intensity exercise with navigation to improve human cognition and increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor.</a> PLoS One. 19 (5), e0303785 (2024).</li><li>Bao, S., Liu, J., Liu, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shedding+light+on+the+effects+of+orienteering+exercise+on+spatial+memory+performance+in+college+students+of+different+genders:+An+fNIRS+study.">Shedding light on the effects of orienteering exercise on spatial memory performance in college students of different genders: An fNIRS study.</a> Brain Sci. 12 (7), 852 (2022).</li><li>Erickson, K. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exercise+training+increases+size+of+hippocampus+and+improves+memory.">Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108 (7), 3017-3022 (2011).</li><li>Maass, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vascular+hippocampal+plasticity+after+aerobic+exercise+in+older+adults.">Vascular hippocampal plasticity after aerobic exercise in older adults.</a> Mol Psychiatry. 20 (5), 585-593 (2015).</li><li>Nagamatsu, L. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+activity+improves+verbal+and+spatial+memory+in+older+adults+with+probable+mild+cognitive+impairment:+A+6-month+randomized+controlled+trial.">Physical activity improves verbal and spatial memory in older adults with probable mild cognitive impairment: A 6-month randomized controlled trial.</a> J Aging Res. 2013, 861893 (2013).</li><li>Nouchi, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Four+weeks+of+combination+exercise+training+improved+executive+functions,+episodic+memory,+and+processing+speed+in+healthy+elderly+people:+evidence+from+a+randomized+controlled+trial.">Four weeks of combination exercise training improved executive functions, episodic memory, and processing speed in healthy elderly people: evidence from a randomized controlled trial.</a> Age. 36 (2), 787-799 (2014).</li><li>Ruscheweyh, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+activity+and+memory+functions:+An+interventional+study.">Physical activity and memory functions: An interventional study.</a> Neurobiol Aging. 32 (7), 1304-1319 (2011).</li><li>Ferencz, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+benefits+of+staying+active+in+old+age:+Physical+activity+counteracts+the+negative+influence+of+PICALM,+BIN1,+and+CLU+risk+alleles+on+episodic+memory+functioning.">The benefits of staying active in old age: Physical activity counteracts the negative influence of PICALM, BIN1, and CLU risk alleles on episodic memory functioning.</a> Psychol Aging. 29 (2), 440-449 (2014).</li><li>Heisz, J. 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D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuroplastic+effects+of+combined+computerized+physical+and+cognitive+training+in+elderly+individuals+at+risk+for+dementia:+An+eLORETA+controlled+study+on+resting+states.">Neuroplastic effects of combined computerized physical and cognitive training in elderly individuals at risk for dementia: An eLORETA controlled study on resting states.</a> Neural Plast. 2015, 172192 (2015).</li><li>Ngandu, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+2+year+multidomain+intervention+of+diet,+exercise,+cognitive+training,+and+vascular+risk+monitoring+versus+control+to+prevent+cognitive+decline+in+at-risk+elderly+people+(FINGER):+a+randomised+controlled+trial.">A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial.</a> Lancet. 385 (9984), 2255-2263 (2015).</li><li>Gavelin, H. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Combined+physical+and+cognitive+training+for+older+adults+with+and+without+cognitive+impairment:+A+systematic+review+and+network+meta-analysis+of+randomized+controlled+trials.">Combined physical and cognitive training for older adults with and without cognitive impairment: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.</a> Ageing Res Rev. 66, 101232 (2021).</li><li>L&#246;vd&#233;n, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatial+navigation+training+protects+the+hippocampus+against+age-related+changes+during+early+and+late+adulthood.">Spatial navigation training protects the hippocampus against age-related changes during early and late adulthood.</a> Neurobiol Aging. 33 (3), 620.e9-620.e22 (2012).</li><li>Jeon, Y. K., Ha, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+exercise+intensity+on+brain+derived+neurotrophic+factor+and+memory+in+adolescents.">The effect of exercise intensity on brain derived neurotrophic factor and memory in adolescents.</a> Environ Health Prev Med. 22 (1), 27 (2017).</li><li>Kovacevic, A., Fenesi, B., Paolucci, E., Heisz, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+aerobic+exercise+intensity+on+memory+in+older+adults.">The effects of aerobic exercise intensity on memory in older adults.</a> Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 45 (6), 591-600 (2020).</li><li>Marquez, C. M. S., Vanaudenaerde, B., Troosters, T., Wenderoth, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-intensity+interval+training+evokes+larger+serum+BDNF+levels+compared+with+intense+continuous+exercise.">High-intensity interval training evokes larger serum BDNF levels compared with intense continuous exercise.</a> J Appl Physiol. 119 (12), 1363-1373 (2015).</li><li>Shah, Z., Ahmad, F., Zahra, M., Zulfiqar, F., Aziz, S., Mahmood, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+single+bout+of+moderate+and+high+intensity+interval+exercise+on+brain+derived+neurotrophic+factor+and+working+memory+in+young+adult+females.">Effect of single bout of moderate and high intensity interval exercise on brain derived neurotrophic factor and working memory in young adult females.</a> Brain Plast. 8 (1), 35-42 (2022).</li><li>Griffin, &. #. 2. 0. 1. ;. W., Mullally, S., Foley, C., Warmington, S. A., O'Mara, S. M., Kelly, &. #. 1. 9. 3. ;. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aerobic+exercise+improves+hippocampal+function+and+increases+BDNF+in+the+serum+of+young+adult+males.">Aerobic exercise improves hippocampal function and increases BDNF in the serum of young adult males.</a> Physiol Behav. 104 (5), 934-941 (2011).</li><li>Ide, K., Schmalbruch, I. K., Quistorff, B., Horn, A., Secher, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lactate,+glucose+and+O2+uptake+in+human+brain+during+recovery+from+maximal+exercise.">Lactate, glucose and O2 uptake in human brain during recovery from maximal exercise.</a> J Physiol. 522 (1), 159-164 (2000).</li><li>M&#252;ller, P., Duderstadt, Y., Lessmann, V., M&#252;ller, N. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lactate+and+BDNF:+Key+mediators+of+exercise+induced+neuroplasticity.">Lactate and BDNF: Key mediators of exercise induced neuroplasticity.</a> J Clin Med. 9 (4), 1136 (2020).</li><li>Hashimoto, T., Tsukamoto, H., Ando, S., Ogoh, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+exercise+on+brain+health:+The+potential+role+of+lactate+as+a+myokine.">Effect of exercise on brain health: The potential role of lactate as a myokine.</a> Metabolites. 11 (12), 813 (2021).</li><li>Cai, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lactate+is+answerable+for+brain+function+and+treating+brain+diseases:+Energy+substrates+and+signal+molecule.">Lactate is answerable for brain function and treating brain diseases: Energy substrates and signal molecule.</a> Front Nutr. 9, 800901 (2022).</li><li>El Hayek, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lactate+mediates+the+effects+of+exercise+on+learning+and+memory+through+SIRT1-dependent+activation+of+hippocampal+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor+(BDNF).">Lactate mediates the effects of exercise on learning and memory through SIRT1-dependent activation of hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).</a> J Neurosci. 339 (13), 2369-2382 (2019).</li><li>Hashimoto, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maintained+exercise-enhanced+brain+executive+function+related+to+cerebral+lactate+metabolism+in+men.">Maintained exercise-enhanced brain executive function related to cerebral lactate metabolism in men.</a> FASEB J. 32 (3), 1417-1427 (2018).</li><li>Kujach, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acute+sprint+interval+exercise+increases+both+cognitive+functions+and+peripheral+neurotrophic+factors+in+humans:+The+possible+involvement+of+lactate.">Acute sprint interval exercise increases both cognitive functions and peripheral neurotrophic factors in humans: The possible involvement of lactate.</a> Front Neurosci. 13, 1455 (2020).</li><li>Raichlen, D. A., Alexander, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptive+capacity:+An+evolutionary+neuroscience+model+linking+exercise,+cognition,+and+brain+health.">Adaptive capacity: An evolutionary neuroscience model linking exercise, cognition, and brain health.</a> Trends Neurosci. 40 (7), 408-421 (2017).</li><li>Dahmani, L., Bohbot, V. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Habitual+use+of+GPS+negatively+impacts+spatial+memory+during+self-guided+navigation.">Habitual use of GPS negatively impacts spatial memory during self-guided navigation.</a> Sci Rep. 10 (1), 6310 (2020).</li><li>McKinlay, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Technology:+Use+or+lose+our+navigation+skills.">Technology: Use or lose our navigation skills.</a> Nature. 531 (7596), 573-575 (2016).</li><li>Ekstrom, A. D., Hill, P. 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The authors report no conflicting interests.

Orienteering, which combines exercise with the cognitive challenge of navigation, offers a unique intervention with the potential to enhance cognitive functioning in domains highly impacted by age and dementia2,6. However, the absence of standardized protocols and a general lack of knowledge about orienteering undermines the clinical utility of this sport. This paper addresses these gaps and provides a detailed protocol for designing orienteering maps and materials for implementing orienteering in a research setting for those with minimal orienteering knowledge.
Although orienteering interventions will vary in terms of their location and course set-up, this protocol provides comprehensive resources, materials, websites, and programs to develop an orienteering intervention aimed at measuring its cognitive effects. This guide is intended for information and educational purposes only and is provided &#39;as is&#39; without any warranties, expressed or implied. The authors disclaim any responsibility for the application of the methods described and any liability for any adverse outcomes or damages resulting from their use. Researchers using this guide to develop their own orienteering interventions are solely responsible for assessing the associated risks of their methodology, obtaining appropriate institutional approvals, and ensuring compliance with all relevant ethical guidelines and regulations.
Choosing the map type in step 2 depends on available time, resources, cartography skills, and participant skill level. Detailed orienteering maps created in programs such as OCAD or OpenOrienteeringMapper&#160;(step 2.2) are generally recommended as they can show a greater level of detail and elaborate elevation data that simplified maps made with OpenOrienteeringMap are not able to show. As expert-level orienteers report being able to efficiently process high-level spatial information while running2, detailed maps are recommended for such participants in order to match the complexity of map information available to their skills. However, creating detailed orienteering maps requires cartography knowledge and more time, which can be a barrier for researchers without previous orienteering knowledge, which may be a limitation to implementing an orienteering intervention. In such cases, simplified orienteering maps (step 2.1) can be made with OpenOrienteeringMap for all participant levels.
In step 3, it is important to sequentially add checkpoints in numerical order, starting from the start location and ending at the finish location. By doing so, the course-setter is better able to track the potential route options between checkpoints to alter the difficulty of the course effectively. For example, when setting a beginner-level course in sequential order, the course-setter can ensure that there is only one decision to be made by participants from one checkpoint to the next.
When teaching basic orienteering skills in step 4.4, some beginner-level participants may require more instruction than others to understand orienteering concepts. Research shows that individuals with no orienteering experience approach spatial navigation and processing differently and also have poorer spatial memory abilities than those with orienteering experience2,3. This highlights individual differences in spatial memory abilities and their impact on orienteering learning and performance. Therefore, modifying the protocol to include more elaborate and detailed orienteering instructions may be necessary to accommodate these differences.
Choosing orienteering locations that are relatively unfamiliar to participants is recommended because an individual&#39;s navigational tendencies can vary between unfamiliar and familiar terrains34. However, safety considerations and adaptations are crucial when implementing orienteering interventions, particularly in unfamiliar areas. A thorough risk assessment for all terrains used is advised before creating any orienteering course. Given that orienteering typically takes place outdoors and some courses require expansive space, not all locations, climates or weather conditions may be safe.
For safety purposes, participant&#39;s routes should be continuously tracked using a GPS sports watch or similar device and should be observed by a researcher (without interference) in order to monitor their time and location. When completing the orienteering intervention, as in step 4.5, it is critical that the GPS sports watch or MapRun application being used acquires a GPS signal and starts recording correctly in order to track the participant&#39;s route for the entirety of the course.
Additional safety considerations are recommended when participants are engaging in longer, advanced-level courses. This includes having a first-aid kit available, and emergency contact information of the participants. Participants may also be required to carry a communication device with them for emergency use only. As orienteering can be performed at high intensities, health assessments of all participants should be completed before engaging in orienteering to ensure they are physically capable of completing the orienteering course without undue risk. Finally, adequate hydration and nutrition should be available for the duration of the orienteering course and exercise parameters. By implementing these safety measures, the risk of accidents and emergencies can be significantly reduced. Researchers are reminded of their responsibility in assessing risk and obtaining necessary ethical approval for their unique intervention
In conclusion, as the field of orienteering research unfolds, this protocol provides information that researchers with minimal orienteering knowledge can use to design and implement orienteering interventions in a research environment. By using this protocol as a guide, future researchers will be able to create standardized orienteering maps and courses to study their desired outcomes.

Orienteering combines spatial navigation with exercise, predominantly in the form of running. The objective of the sport is to use a map and compass to navigate to numerous checkpoints across an unfamiliar area as quickly as possible1. Orienteers may choose any navigational route they wish to locate a series of checkpoints, called an orienteering course. Orienteering courses vary in navigational difficulty; the level of challenge is tailored to match the participant&#39;s skill level, ensuring an appropriate and engaging navigational experience.
The ability to locate checkpoints requires spatial processing and wayfinding skills, and orienteering experts of all ages report more efficient spatial strategies while navigating and better spatial processing than non-orienteering controls2,3,4. When novices engage in orienteering at a vigorous exercise intensity, even a single session can improve spatial memory and increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a growth factor that supports the optimal functioning of brain cells5. Orienteering at a moderate intensity can also improve memory but may require consistent training. Bao and colleagues observed improvements in spatial memory when beginners participated in moderate-intensity orienteering twice weekly for 12 weeks (i.e., 24 sessions)6.
Although running alone can enhance the structure and function of brain regions like the hippocampus, improving spatial7,8,9 and episodic memory10,11,12, research suggests these effects may be amplified when running is combined with cognitively challenging tasks13,14,15,16,17,18. Furthermore, orienteering often involves vigorous exercise with short breaks at the checkpoints, resembling high-intensity interval training (HIIT). This format of exercise has been shown to significantly boost cognitive function19, 20 and increase BDNF21,22,23 more effectively than continuous, moderate-intensity exercise. Vigorous exercise may be especially beneficial for cognition because it causes the accumulation of lactate that can act as a fuel source for the brain24 as well as an activator of BDNF to support cognitive function25,26,27, but there is limited research examining this pathway in humans28,29,30.
Multiple theories could explain why orienteering benefits cognition. For one, orienteering relies on processes similar to hunter-gatherer activities, and according to the Adaptive Capacity Model31, the brain and body may be more receptive to training activities with an evolutionary semblance. Moreover, orienteering requires spatial navigation, which has largely been engineered out of modern life due to the ubiquitous global positioning system (GPS) technology32, and so it may also be a case of &#34;use it or lose it&#34; 33.
Given the novelty and promise of orienteering to enhance human cognition, it is important to develop resources and establish guidelines that help researchers unfamiliar with the sport implement an orienteering intervention. Therefore, this current protocol aims to provide researchers with the necessary steps for developing orienteering maps, courses, and interventions within a research setting.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Chest heart rate monitor strap</td>
			<td>Polar Electro</td>
			<td>https://www.polar.com/</td>
			<td>Or any other device capable of recording heart rate continuously and that can pair with the chosen watch.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clipboard</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>https://www.staples.com/clipboards</td>
			<td>To record any in-field measures.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Colour printer</td>
			<td>HP Laser Colour Printer</td>
			<td>https://www.hp.com/</td>
			<td>To print maps.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Computer&#160;</td>
			<td>Lenovo IdeaPad</td>
			<td>https://www.lenovo.com/in/en/c/laptops/ideapad/</td>
			<td>Ensure the device chosen is capable of running your chosen orienteering map and course making software.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GPS Sports watch</td>
			<td>Polar Electro</td>
			<td>https://www.polar.com/</td>
			<td>Or any other GPS watch with a sampling rate of 1&#8211;3 s.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OCAD for Orienteering&#160;</td>
			<td>OCAD</td>
			<td>https://www.ocad.com/en/</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OpenOrienteeringMapper</td>
			<td>Open orienteering</td>
			<td>https://www.openorienteering.org/apps/mapper/</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orienteering Compass (for more advanced orienteers)</td>
			<td>Suunto Oy</td>
			<td>https://www.suunto.com/en-in/News/Suunto-introduces-stable-and-fast-AIM-compasses-for-competitive-orienteers/</td>
			<td>Or any other compass model capable of orienting to Magnetic North and setting a bearing angle.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orienteering control marker OR pin flag OR flagging tape OR pylon</td>
			<td>Silva-USA (orienteering control markers) OR Amazon.com</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Choose an item to mark each checkpoint location that is most feasible for your intervention.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pen</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>https://www.staples.com</td>
			<td>To record any in-field measures.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic paper sleeve</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>https://www.staples.com/sheet-protectors/</td>
			<td>To protect maps from weather.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Smartphone capable of running the MapRun Application</td>
			<td>Apple, iPhone 12</td>
			<td>https://www.apple.com/iphone/</td>
			<td>Required if using the MapRun application as per step step 4.2.2.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

orienteering as a tool for cognitive research: an implementation guide

The sport of orienteering combines physical activity with spatial navigation. Using only a map and a compass, the orienteer must locate a series of checkpoints over unfamiliar terrain using any navigational route they choose and while moving as quickly as possible. Although expert orienteers have superior spatial memory and navigational abilities, even a single session of orienteering can benefit cognition, suggesting that orienteering may be a promising way to train the brain. Research interventions involving orienteering may be especially beneficial for staving off Alzheimer's disease and related dementias that are afflicted by early impairments in wayfinding and spatial cognition. Though orienteering has gained traction in recent literature, certain barriers exist for researchers who are unfamiliar with the sport and wish to implement an intervention. Specifically, a lack of research-based resources for creating orienteering maps and courses may prevent those wishing to study orienteering from designing an intervention. Therefore, this report provides the fundamental information needed to develop orienteering maps and courses and how to implement orienteering interventions in a research setting.

Orienteering performance
Our previous work analyzed the navigational performance of 41 participants who engaged in orienteering5. For a comprehensive understanding of the study methodology, refer to Waddington et al.5.
In this study, 19 participants engaged in orienteering at a vigorous (running) intensity, while 22 performed it at a moderate orienteering (walking) intensity. Navigational performance was determined by calculating the ratio of the distance traveled by the participant to the most optimal route for the orienteering course. This analysis assumes that participants traveling farther than the most efficient route are making navigational errors, thereby extending their distance taken to complete the orienteering course. A ratio of 1 thus indicates that the participant completed the orienteering intervention course using the most efficient route without making any errors.
The most optimal route across the orienteering course was determined by an expert-level orienteer. This route was measured multiple times using a count-meter in both the forward and reverse directions by different researchers for a total of six measures. Using the average of these measures, the most efficient route of the orienteering intervention course was determined to be 1300 m.
The average distance taken to complete the orienteering course for participants orienteering at a vigorous exercise intensity was 1415.79 &#177; 162.25 m, and 1360 &#177; 149.83 m for those orienteering at a moderate intensity. In terms of the ratio of the distance traveled to the most optimal route, the average ratio for the vigorous intensity orienteering group was 1.09 &#177; 0.12 (range: 0.95-1.35) and 1.05 &#177; 0.12 (range: 0.96-1.48) for the moderate intensity orienteering group (Figure 6). These results reveal that participants orienting at either a vigorous or moderate-intensity traveled further than the optimal route, indicating the presence of navigational errors that are typical for novices and expected to improve with training. Comparing these values to the visualized route captured by the GPS sports watch, as in Figure 5, can further indicate navigational performance.
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66833/66833fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Navigational efficiency ratio at different orienteering exercise intensities. The figure illustrates the mean &#177; SD of the navigational efficiency ratio of participants completing an orienteering course at either a moderate or vigorous exercise intensity. The ratio was calculated as the distance traveled by the participant (as determined by a GPS sports watch) divided by the most optimal route length of 1300 m, and a value of 1 indicates that the course was completed without navigational errors. Data has previously been reported in&#160; Waddington et al.5. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66833/66833fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Orienteering as a Tool for Cognitive Research: An Implementation Guide

The sport of orienteering is emerging as an effective way to train both the body and brain as it combines physical activity with spatial navigation. The current manuscript offers a guide on how to implement the sport of orienteering in research.

The sport of orienteering combines physical activity with spatial navigation. Using only a map and a compass, the orienteer must locate a series of ...

orienteering-as-a-tool-for-cognitive-research-an-implementation-guide

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

590 Views.  McMaster University. The sport of orienteering is emerging as an effective way to train both the body and brain as it combines physical activity with spatial navigation. The current manuscript offers a guide on how to implement the sport of orienteering in research.

Video: Orienteering as a Tool for Cognitive Research: An Implementation Guide

The Crossmodal Congruency Task as a Means to Obtain an Objective Behavioral Measure in the Rubber Hand Illusion Paradigm

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden hand is touched. If the viewed and felt touches are given at the same time then this is sufficient to induce the compelling experience that the rubber hand is one's own hand. The RHI can be used to investigate exactly how the brain constructs distinct body representations for one's own body. Such representations are crucial for successful interactions with the external world. To obtain a subjective measure of the RHI, researchers typically ask participants to rate statements such as "I felt as if the rubber hand were my hand". Here we demonstrate how the crossmodal congruency task can be used to obtain an objective behavioral measure within this paradigm.
The variant of the crossmodal congruency task we employ involves the presentation of tactile targets and visual distractors. Targets and distractors are spatially congruent (i.e. same finger) on some trials and incongruent (i.e. different finger) on others. The difference in performance between incongruent and congruent trials - the crossmodal congruency effect (CCE) - indexes multisensory interactions. Importantly, the CCE is modulated both by viewing a hand as well as the synchrony of viewed and felt touch which are both crucial factors for the RHI.
The use of the crossmodal congruency task within the RHI paradigm has several advantages. It is a simple behavioral measure which can be repeated many times and which can be obtained during the illusion while participants view the artificial hand. Furthermore, this measure is not susceptible to observer and experimenter biases. The combination of the RHI paradigm with the crossmodal congruency task allows in particular for the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the RHI.

We demonstrate how an objective measure can be employed in the widely employed rubber hand illusion paradigm. This measure is obtained by modifying the well-established crossmodal congruency task. This task allows the investigation of multisensory processes which are critical for modulations of body representations as in the rubber hand illusion.

The rubber hand illusion (RHI) is a popular experimental paradigm. Participants view touch on an artificial rubber hand while the participants' own hidden ...

Combined Shuttle-Box Training with Electrophysiological Cortex Recording and Stimulation as a Tool to Study Perception and Learning

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the necessary equipment is now available by several commercial companies. This protocol provides a detailed description of a two-way shuttle-box avoidance learning paradigm in rodents (here Mongolian gerbils; Meriones unguiculatus) in combination with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical electrophysiological in vivo recordings. The detailed protocol is applicable to study multiple aspects of learning behavior and perception in different rodent species.
Site-specific ICMS of auditory cortical circuits as conditioned stimuli here is used as a tool to test the perceptual relevance of specific afferent, efferent and intracortical connections. Distinct activation patterns can be evoked by using different stimulation electrode arrays for local, layer-dependent ICMS or distant ICMS sites. Utilizing behavioral signal detection analysis it can be determined which stimulation strategy is most effective for eliciting a behaviorally detectable and salient signal. Further, parallel multichannel-recordings using different electrode designs (surface electrodes, depth electrodes, etc.) allow for investigating neuronal observables over the time course of such learning processes. It will be discussed how changes of the behavioral design can increase the cognitive complexity (e.g. detection, discrimination, reversal learning).

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is well-established in behavioral neuroscience. This protocol describes how shuttle-box learning in rodents can be combined with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical in vivo recordings as a tool to study multiple aspects of learning and perception.

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the ...

Vagus Nerve Stimulation as a Tool to Induce Plasticity in Pathways Relevant for Extinction Learning

Extinction describes the process of attenuating behavioral responses to neutral stimuli when they no longer provide the reinforcement that has been maintaining the behavior. There is close correspondence between fear and human anxiety, and therefore studies of extinction learning might provide insight into the biological nature of anxiety-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, and they might help to develop strategies to treat them. Preclinical research aims to aid extinction learning and to induce targeted plasticity in extinction circuits to consolidate the newly formed memory. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a powerful approach that provides tight temporal and circuit-specific release of neurotransmitters, resulting in modulation of neuronal networks engaged in an ongoing task. VNS enhances memory consolidation in both rats and humans, and pairing VNS with exposure to conditioned cues enhances the consolidation of extinction learning in rats. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the preparation of custom-made parts and the surgical procedures required for VNS in rats. Using this protocol we show how VNS can facilitate the extinction of conditioned fear responses in an auditory fear conditioning task. In addition, we provide evidence that VNS modulates synaptic plasticity in the pathway between the infralimbic (IL) medial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA), which is involved in the expression and modulation of extinction memory.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has emerged as a tool to induce targeted synaptic plasticity in the forebrain to modify a range of behaviors. This protocol describes how to implement VNS to facilitate the consolidation of fear extinction memory.

Extinction describes the process of attenuating behavioral responses to neutral stimuli when they no longer provide the reinforcement that has been ...

Introducing Clicker Training as a Cognitive Enrichment for Laboratory Mice

Establishing new refinement strategies in laboratory animal science is a central goal in fulfilling the requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU. Previous research determined a profound impact of gentle handling protocols on the well-being of laboratory mice. By introducing clicker training to the keeping of mice, not only do we promote the amicable treatment of mice, but we also enable them to experience cognitive enrichment. Clicker training is a form of positive reinforcement training using a conditioned secondary reinforcer, the "click" sound of a clicker, which serves as a time bridge between the strengthened behavior and an upcoming reward. The effective implementation of the clicker training protocol with a cohort of 12 BALB/c inbred mice of each sex proved to be uncomplicated. The mice learned rather quickly when challenged with tasks of the clicker training protocol, and almost all trained mice overcame the challenges they were given (100% of female mice and 83% of male mice). This study has identified that clicker training for mice strongly correlates with reduced fear in the mice during human-mice interactions, as shown by reduced anxiety-related behaviors (e.g., defecation, vocalization, and urination) and fewer depression-like behaviors (e.g., floating). By developing a reliable protocol that can be easily integrated into the daily routine of the keeping of laboratory mice, the lifetime experience of welfare in the mice can be improved substantially.

The development of new refinement strategies for laboratory mice is a challenging task that contributes towards fulfilling the 3R principle. This protocol introduces clicker training as a cognitive enrichment program for laboratory mice.

Establishing new refinement strategies in laboratory animal science is a central goal in fulfilling the requirements of Directive 2010/63/EU. Previous ...

Using a Virtual Store As a Research Tool to Investigate Consumer In-store Behavior

People&#39;s responses to products and/or choice environments are crucial to understanding in-store consumer behaviors. Currently, there are various approaches (e.g., surveys or laboratory settings) to study in-store behaviors, but the external validity of these is limited by their poor capability to resemble realistic choice environments. In addition, building a real store to meet experimental conditions while controlling for undesirable effects is costly and highly difficult. A virtual store developed by virtual reality techniques potentially transcends these limitations by offering the simulation of a 3D virtual store environment in a realistic, flexible, and cost-efficient way. In particular, a virtual store interactively allows consumers (participants) to experience and interact with objects in a tightly controlled yet realistic setting. This paper presents the key elements of using a desktop virtual store to study in-store consumer behavior. Descriptions of the protocol steps to: 1) build the experimental store, 2) prepare the data management program, 3) run the virtual store experiment, and 4) organize and export data from the data management program are presented. The virtual store enables participants to navigate through the store, choose a product from alternatives, and select or return products. Moreover, consumer-related shopping behaviors (e.g., shopping time, walking speed, and number and type of products examined and bought) can also be collected. The protocol is illustrated with an example of a store layout experiment showing that shelf length and shelf orientation influence shopping- and movement-related behaviors. This demonstrates that the use of a virtual store facilitates the study of consumer responses. The virtual store can be especially helpful when examining factors that are costly or difficult to change in real life (e.g., overall store layout), products that are not presently available in the market, and routinized behaviors in familiar environments.

This paper describes the use of a desktop virtual store to create virtual shopping environments to investigate in-store consumer behavior. A description of the protocol to build and run experiments, example results from an experiment concerning store layout, and important considerations when conducting virtual store experiments are presented.

People&#39;s responses to products and/or choice environments are crucial to understanding in-store consumer behaviors. Currently, there are various ...

The Other End of the Leash: An Experimental Test to Analyze How Owners Interact with Their Pet Dogs

It has been suggested that the way in which owners interact with their dogs can largely vary and influence the dog-owner bond, but very few objective studies, so far, have addressed how the owner interacts with the dog. The goal of the present study was to record dog owners&#39; interaction styles by means of objective observation and coding. The experiment included eight standardized situations in which owners of pet dogs were asked to perform specific tasks including both positive (i.e. playing, teaching a new task, showing a preference towards an object in a food searching task, greeting after separation) and potentially distressing tasks (i.e. physical restriction during DNA sampling, putting a T-shirt onto the dog, giving basic obedience commands while the dog was distracted). The video recordings were coded off-line using a specifically designed coding scheme including scores for communication, social support, warmth, enthusiasm, and play style, as well as frequency of behaviors like petting, praising, commands, and attention sounds. Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 20 variables measured revealed 3 factors, labeled as Owner Warmth, Owner Social Support, and Owner Control, which can be viewed as analogues to parenting style dimensions. The experimental procedure introduced here represents the first standardized measure of interaction styles of dog owners. The methodology presented here is a useful tool to investigate individual variation in the interaction style of pet dog owners that can be used to explain differences in the dog-human relationship, dogs&#39; behavioral outcomes, and dogs stress coping strategies, all crucial elements both from a theoretical and applied point of view.

This article presents eight different experimental tasks, mirroring the everyday life of dogs and owners, used to analyze how owners interact with their dogs in a standardized way. The tasks included both positive (e.g. play) and negative (potentially stressful) situations (e.g. physical restriction).

It has been suggested that the way in which owners interact with their dogs can largely vary and influence the dog-owner bond, but very few objective ...

A Machine Learning Approach to Design an Efficient Selective Screening of Mild Cognitive Impairment

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is the first sign of dementia among elderly populations and its early detection is crucial in our aging societies. Common MCI tests are time-consuming such that indiscriminate massive screening would not be cost-effective. Here, we describe a protocol that uses machine learning techniques to rapidly select candidates for further screening via a question-based MCI test. This minimizes the number of resources required for screening because only patients who are potentially MCI positive are tested further.
This methodology was applied in an initial MCI research study that formed the starting point for the design of a selective screening decision tree. The initial study collected many demographic and lifestyle variables as well as details about patient medications. The Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) were used to detect possible cases of MCI. Finally, we used this method to design an efficient process for classifying individuals at risk of MCI. This work also provides insights into lifestyle-related factors associated with MCI that could be leveraged in the prevention and early detection of MCI among elderly populations.

This methodology produces decision trees that target population groups more prone to suffering from mild cognitive impairment and are useful for cost-effective selective screening of the disease.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is the first sign of dementia among elderly populations and its early detection is crucial in our aging societies. Common ...

Applying an eMASS Customization Program as a Research Tool to Evaluate Consumer Benefits

As many scholars and practitioners study personalization and relationship marketing, it is important to provide personalization such as mass customization through marketing technology. The purpose of this study is to examine how to conduct consumer research using an online survey and analysis of data. This study examines consumers&#39;&#160;perceived benefits while customizing a product as well as emotional product attachment, attitudes toward a customization program, and loyalty intentions in the context of online retailing. In addition, this study investigates how consumer responses are different based on individual characteristics such as fashion innovativeness. An online survey company in South Korea recruited 290 female apparel shoppers who purchased apparel online. To enhance external validity, this study used an existing retail website with a well-established mass customization program. After completing the customization program, participants complete the online questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and latent mean analyses (LMAs) are then performed for analyses. This study stresses the importance of testing measurement invariance for mean comparisons. Before the SEM and LMA, this study follows the hierarchy of invariance tests (configural invariance test, metric invariance test, and scalar invariance test), which are not considered by traditional approaches such as ANOVA. These statistical analyses provide applicability of the invariance test procedures and LMA to consumer behaviors. The conclusions of mean differences have integrity and validity because they are guided by a sophisticated statistical procedure to ensure measurement invariance.

Presented here is a protocol to examine consumer responses toward mass customization in the context of online retailing. The protocol details the online survey procedure and how to analyze data using structural equation modeling and group differences using latent mean analyses.

As many scholars and practitioners study personalization and relationship marketing, it is important to provide personalization such as mass customization ...

Nest Building Behavior as an Early Indicator of Behavioral Deficits in Mice

Nest building is an innate behavior in male and female rodents, even when raised in laboratory settings. As such, many researchers provide rodents synthetic and/or natural materials (such as twine, tissue, cotton, paper, and hay) as a gauge of their overall well-being and as an ancillary assessment to predict the possible decline in cognition. Typically, changes in nesting behaviors, such as failure to create a nest, indicate a change in health or welfare. In addition, nesting behavior is sensitive to many environmental and physiological challenges, as well as many genetic mutations underlying pathological disease states. The following protocol describes a nesting behavior paradigm that explores the usage of four types of nesting material. In addition, the protocol utilizes intraclass correlations to demonstrate that inter-rater reliability is higher when nests are constructed out of shredded paper compared to other common nesting materials such as cotton squares, paper twists, and soft cob bedding. The chosen methodology and statistical considerations (i.e., intraclass correlation) for this assay may be of interest for those conducting experiments assessing the quality of living of mice.&#160;

Here, we present a protocol to quantify nest building behavior in mice, which is known to be impaired in several neurological disorders and diseases. This protocol examines the utility of four materials and offers the opportunity to quantify the rater agreement in scoring, improving the validity and reliability of the assay.

Nest building is an innate behavior in male and female rodents, even when raised in laboratory settings. As such, many researchers provide rodents ...

Assessment of Stress Effects on Cognitive Flexibility using an Operant Strategy Shifting Paradigm

Stress affects cognitive function. Whether stress enhances or impairs cognitive function depends on several factors, including the 1) type, intensity, and duration of the stressor; 2) type of cognitive function under study; and 3) timing of the stressor in relation to learning or executing the cognitive task. Furthermore, sex differences among the effects of stress on cognitive function have been widely documented. Described here is an adaptation of an automated operant strategy shifting paradigm to assess how variations in stress affect cognitive flexibility in male and female Sprague Dawley rats. Specifically, restraint stress is used before or after training in this operant-based task to examine how stress affects cognitive performance in both sexes. Particular brain areas associated with each task in this automated paradigm have been well-established (i.e., the medial prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex). This allows for targeted manipulations during the experiment or the assessment of particular genes and proteins in these regions upon completion of the paradigm. This paradigm also allows for the detection of different types of performance errors that occur after stress, each of which has defined neural substrates. Also identified are distinct sex differences in perseverative errors after a repeated restraint stress paradigm. The use of these techniques in a preclinical model may reveal how stress affects the brain and impairs cognition in psychiatric disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD), which display marked sex differences in prevalence.

Stressful life events impair cognitive function, increasing the risk of psychiatric disorders. This protocol illustrates how stress affects cognitive flexibility using an automated operant strategy shifting paradigm in male and female Sprague Dawley rats. Specific brain areas underlying particular behaviors are discussed, and translational relevance of results are explored.

Stress affects cognitive function. Whether stress enhances or impairs cognitive function depends on several factors, including the 1) type, intensity, and ...