We would like to thank the members of the NeuroFit Lab for their ongoing support as we begin to explore the effects of orienteering on brain health and function. This study was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada under grant RGPIN-2022-05298 (to J. J. H.).

Implementing Orienteering for Body and Brain Training 

<ol><li>Eccles, D. W., Walsh, S. E., Ingledew, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+grounded+theory+of+expert+cognition+in+orienteering%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Sport+Exerc+Pyschol%22%5BJournal%5D)">A grounded theory of expert cognition in orienteering.</a> J Sport Exerc Pyschol. 24 (1), 68-88 (2002).</li>
<li>Waddington, E. E., Heisz, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Orienteering+experts+report+more+proficient+spatial+processing+and+memory+across+adulthood%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+One%22%5BJournal%5D)">Orienteering experts report more proficient spatial processing and memory across adulthood.</a> PLoS One. 18 (1), e0280435(2023).</li>
<li>Feraco, T., Bonvento, M., Meneghetti, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Orienteering%3A+What+relation+with+visuospatial+abilities%2C+wayfinding+attitudes%2C+and+environment+learning%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Appl+Cogn+Psychol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Orienteering: What relation with visuospatial abilities, wayfinding attitudes, and environment learning.</a> Appl Cogn Psychol. 35 (6), 1592-1599 (2021).</li>
<li>Eccles, D. W., Arsal, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((How+do+they+make+it+look+so+easy%3F+The+expert+orienteer%27s+cognitive+advantage%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Sports+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">How do they make it look so easy? The expert orienteer's cognitive advantage.</a> J Sports Sci. 33 (6), 609-615 (2015).</li>
<li>Waddington, E. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Orienteering+combines+vigorous-intensity+exercise+with+navigation+to+improve+human+cognition+and+increase+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+One%22%5BJournal%5D)">Orienteering combines vigorous-intensity exercise with navigation to improve human cognition and increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor.</a> PLoS One. 19 (5), e0303785(2024).</li>
<li>Bao, S., Liu, J., Liu, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Shedding+light+on+the+effects+of+orienteering+exercise+on+spatial+memory+performance+in+college+students+of+different+genders%3A+An+fNIRS+study%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Brain+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Shedding light on the effects of orienteering exercise on spatial memory performance in college students of different genders: An fNIRS study.</a> Brain Sci. 12 (7), 852(2022).</li>
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<li>Gavelin, H. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Combined+physical+and+cognitive+training+for+older+adults+with+and+without+cognitive+impairment%3A+A+systematic+review+and+network+meta-analysis+of+randomized+controlled+trials%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Ageing+Res+Rev%22%5BJournal%5D)">Combined physical and cognitive training for older adults with and without cognitive impairment: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.</a> Ageing Res Rev. 66, 101232(2021).</li>
<li>Lövdén, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Spatial+navigation+training+protects+the+hippocampus+against+age-related+changes+during+early+and+late+adulthood%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Neurobiol+Aging%22%5BJournal%5D)">Spatial navigation training protects the hippocampus against age-related changes during early and late adulthood.</a> Neurobiol Aging. 33 (3), 620.e9-620.e22 (2012).</li>
<li>Jeon, Y. K., Ha, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+effect+of+exercise+intensity+on+brain+derived+neurotrophic+factor+and+memory+in+adolescents%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Environ+Health+Prev+Med%22%5BJournal%5D)">The effect of exercise intensity on brain derived neurotrophic factor and memory in adolescents.</a> Environ Health Prev Med. 22 (1), 27(2017).</li>
<li>Kovacevic, A., Fenesi, B., Paolucci, E., Heisz, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+effects+of+aerobic+exercise+intensity+on+memory+in+older+adults%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Appl+Physiol+Nutr+Metab%22%5BJournal%5D)">The effects of aerobic exercise intensity on memory in older adults.</a> Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 45 (6), 591-600 (2020).</li>
<li>Marquez, C. M. S., Vanaudenaerde, B., Troosters, T., Wenderoth, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((High-intensity+interval+training+evokes+larger+serum+BDNF+levels+compared+with+intense+continuous+exercise%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Appl+Physiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">High-intensity interval training evokes larger serum BDNF levels compared with intense continuous exercise.</a> J Appl Physiol. 119 (12), 1363-1373 (2015).</li>
<li>Shah, Z., Ahmad, F., Zahra, M., Zulfiqar, F., Aziz, S., Mahmood, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Effect+of+single+bout+of+moderate+and+high+intensity+interval+exercise+on+brain+derived+neurotrophic+factor+and+working+memory+in+young+adult+females%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Brain+Plast%22%5BJournal%5D)">Effect of single bout of moderate and high intensity interval exercise on brain derived neurotrophic factor and working memory in young adult females.</a> Brain Plast. 8 (1), 35-42 (2022).</li>
<li>Griffin, ÉW., Mullally, S., Foley, C., Warmington, S. A., O'Mara, S. M., Kelly, ÁM. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Aerobic+exercise+improves+hippocampal+function+and+increases+BDNF+in+the+serum+of+young+adult+males%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Physiol+Behav%22%5BJournal%5D)">Aerobic exercise improves hippocampal function and increases BDNF in the serum of young adult males.</a> Physiol Behav. 104 (5), 934-941 (2011).</li>
<li>Ide, K., Schmalbruch, I. K., Quistorff, B., Horn, A., Secher, N. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Lactate%2C+glucose+and+O2+uptake+in+human+brain+during+recovery+from+maximal+exercise%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Physiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Lactate, glucose and O2 uptake in human brain during recovery from maximal exercise.</a> J Physiol. 522 (1), 159-164 (2000).</li>
<li>Müller, P., Duderstadt, Y., Lessmann, V., Müller, N. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Lactate+and+BDNF%3A+Key+mediators+of+exercise+induced+neuroplasticity%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Clin+Med%22%5BJournal%5D)">Lactate and BDNF: Key mediators of exercise induced neuroplasticity.</a> J Clin Med. 9 (4), 1136(2020).</li>
<li>Hashimoto, T., Tsukamoto, H., Ando, S., Ogoh, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Effect+of+exercise+on+brain+health%3A+The+potential+role+of+lactate+as+a+myokine%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Metabolites%22%5BJournal%5D)">Effect of exercise on brain health: The potential role of lactate as a myokine.</a> Metabolites. 11 (12), 813(2021).</li>
<li>Cai, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Lactate+is+answerable+for+brain+function+and+treating+brain+diseases%3A+Energy+substrates+and+signal+molecule%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Nutr%22%5BJournal%5D)">Lactate is answerable for brain function and treating brain diseases: Energy substrates and signal molecule.</a> Front Nutr. 9, 800901(2022).</li>
<li>El Hayek, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Lactate+mediates+the+effects+of+exercise+on+learning+and+memory+through+SIRT1-dependent+activation+of+hippocampal+brain-derived+neurotrophic+factor+%28BDNF%29%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Neurosci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Lactate mediates the effects of exercise on learning and memory through SIRT1-dependent activation of hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).</a> J Neurosci. 339 (13), 2369-2382 (2019).</li>
<li>Hashimoto, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Maintained+exercise-enhanced+brain+executive+function+related+to+cerebral+lactate+metabolism+in+men%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22FASEB+J%22%5BJournal%5D)">Maintained exercise-enhanced brain executive function related to cerebral lactate metabolism in men.</a> FASEB J. 32 (3), 1417-1427 (2018).</li>
<li>Kujach, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Acute+sprint+interval+exercise+increases+both+cognitive+functions+and+peripheral+neurotrophic+factors+in+humans%3A+The+possible+involvement+of+lactate%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Neurosci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Acute sprint interval exercise increases both cognitive functions and peripheral neurotrophic factors in humans: The possible involvement of lactate.</a> Front Neurosci. 13, 1455(2020).</li>
<li>Raichlen, D. A., Alexander, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Adaptive+capacity%3A+An+evolutionary+neuroscience+model+linking+exercise%2C+cognition%2C+and+brain+health%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Trends+Neurosci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Adaptive capacity: An evolutionary neuroscience model linking exercise, cognition, and brain health.</a> Trends Neurosci. 40 (7), 408-421 (2017).</li>
<li>Dahmani, L., Bohbot, V. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Habitual+use+of+GPS+negatively+impacts+spatial+memory+during+self-guided+navigation%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Sci+Rep%22%5BJournal%5D)">Habitual use of GPS negatively impacts spatial memory during self-guided navigation.</a> Sci Rep. 10 (1), 6310(2020).</li>
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The authors report no conflicting interests.

Orienteering, which combines exercise with the cognitive challenge of navigation, offers a unique intervention with the potential to enhance cognitive functioning in domains highly impacted by age and dementia2,6. However, the absence of standardized protocols and a general lack of knowledge about orienteering undermines the clinical utility of this sport. This paper addresses these gaps and provides a detailed protocol for designing orienteering maps and materials for implementing orienteering in a research setting for those with minimal orienteering knowledge.
Although orienteering interventions will vary in terms of their location and course set-up, this protocol provides comprehensive resources, materials, websites, and programs to develop an orienteering intervention aimed at measuring its cognitive effects. This guide is intended for information and educational purposes only and is provided &#39;as is&#39; without any warranties, expressed or implied. The authors disclaim any responsibility for the application of the methods described and any liability for any adverse outcomes or damages resulting from their use. Researchers using this guide to develop their own orienteering interventions are solely responsible for assessing the associated risks of their methodology, obtaining appropriate institutional approvals, and ensuring compliance with all relevant ethical guidelines and regulations.
Choosing the map type in step 2 depends on available time, resources, cartography skills, and participant skill level. Detailed orienteering maps created in programs such as OCAD or OpenOrienteeringMapper&#160;(step 2.2) are generally recommended as they can show a greater level of detail and elaborate elevation data that simplified maps made with OpenOrienteeringMap are not able to show. As expert-level orienteers report being able to efficiently process high-level spatial information while running2, detailed maps are recommended for such participants in order to match the complexity of map information available to their skills. However, creating detailed orienteering maps requires cartography knowledge and more time, which can be a barrier for researchers without previous orienteering knowledge, which may be a limitation to implementing an orienteering intervention. In such cases, simplified orienteering maps (step 2.1) can be made with OpenOrienteeringMap for all participant levels.
In step 3, it is important to sequentially add checkpoints in numerical order, starting from the start location and ending at the finish location. By doing so, the course-setter is better able to track the potential route options between checkpoints to alter the difficulty of the course effectively. For example, when setting a beginner-level course in sequential order, the course-setter can ensure that there is only one decision to be made by participants from one checkpoint to the next.
When teaching basic orienteering skills in step 4.4, some beginner-level participants may require more instruction than others to understand orienteering concepts. Research shows that individuals with no orienteering experience approach spatial navigation and processing differently and also have poorer spatial memory abilities than those with orienteering experience2,3. This highlights individual differences in spatial memory abilities and their impact on orienteering learning and performance. Therefore, modifying the protocol to include more elaborate and detailed orienteering instructions may be necessary to accommodate these differences.
Choosing orienteering locations that are relatively unfamiliar to participants is recommended because an individual&#39;s navigational tendencies can vary between unfamiliar and familiar terrains34. However, safety considerations and adaptations are crucial when implementing orienteering interventions, particularly in unfamiliar areas. A thorough risk assessment for all terrains used is advised before creating any orienteering course. Given that orienteering typically takes place outdoors and some courses require expansive space, not all locations, climates or weather conditions may be safe.
For safety purposes, participant&#39;s routes should be continuously tracked using a GPS sports watch or similar device and should be observed by a researcher (without interference) in order to monitor their time and location. When completing the orienteering intervention, as in step 4.5, it is critical that the GPS sports watch or MapRun application being used acquires a GPS signal and starts recording correctly in order to track the participant&#39;s route for the entirety of the course.
Additional safety considerations are recommended when participants are engaging in longer, advanced-level courses. This includes having a first-aid kit available, and emergency contact information of the participants. Participants may also be required to carry a communication device with them for emergency use only. As orienteering can be performed at high intensities, health assessments of all participants should be completed before engaging in orienteering to ensure they are physically capable of completing the orienteering course without undue risk. Finally, adequate hydration and nutrition should be available for the duration of the orienteering course and exercise parameters. By implementing these safety measures, the risk of accidents and emergencies can be significantly reduced. Researchers are reminded of their responsibility in assessing risk and obtaining necessary ethical approval for their unique intervention
In conclusion, as the field of orienteering research unfolds, this protocol provides information that researchers with minimal orienteering knowledge can use to design and implement orienteering interventions in a research environment. By using this protocol as a guide, future researchers will be able to create standardized orienteering maps and courses to study their desired outcomes.

Orienteering combines spatial navigation with exercise, predominantly in the form of running. The objective of the sport is to use a map and compass to navigate to numerous checkpoints across an unfamiliar area as quickly as possible1. Orienteers may choose any navigational route they wish to locate a series of checkpoints, called an orienteering course. Orienteering courses vary in navigational difficulty; the level of challenge is tailored to match the participant&#39;s skill level, ensuring an appropriate and engaging navigational experience.
The ability to locate checkpoints requires spatial processing and wayfinding skills, and orienteering experts of all ages report more efficient spatial strategies while navigating and better spatial processing than non-orienteering controls2,3,4. When novices engage in orienteering at a vigorous exercise intensity, even a single session can improve spatial memory and increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a growth factor that supports the optimal functioning of brain cells5. Orienteering at a moderate intensity can also improve memory but may require consistent training. Bao and colleagues observed improvements in spatial memory when beginners participated in moderate-intensity orienteering twice weekly for 12 weeks (i.e., 24 sessions)6.
Although running alone can enhance the structure and function of brain regions like the hippocampus, improving spatial7,8,9 and episodic memory10,11,12, research suggests these effects may be amplified when running is combined with cognitively challenging tasks13,14,15,16,17,18. Furthermore, orienteering often involves vigorous exercise with short breaks at the checkpoints, resembling high-intensity interval training (HIIT). This format of exercise has been shown to significantly boost cognitive function19, 20 and increase BDNF21,22,23 more effectively than continuous, moderate-intensity exercise. Vigorous exercise may be especially beneficial for cognition because it causes the accumulation of lactate that can act as a fuel source for the brain24 as well as an activator of BDNF to support cognitive function25,26,27, but there is limited research examining this pathway in humans28,29,30.
Multiple theories could explain why orienteering benefits cognition. For one, orienteering relies on processes similar to hunter-gatherer activities, and according to the Adaptive Capacity Model31, the brain and body may be more receptive to training activities with an evolutionary semblance. Moreover, orienteering requires spatial navigation, which has largely been engineered out of modern life due to the ubiquitous global positioning system (GPS) technology32, and so it may also be a case of &#34;use it or lose it&#34; 33.
Given the novelty and promise of orienteering to enhance human cognition, it is important to develop resources and establish guidelines that help researchers unfamiliar with the sport implement an orienteering intervention. Therefore, this current protocol aims to provide researchers with the necessary steps for developing orienteering maps, courses, and interventions within a research setting.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Chest heart rate monitor strap</td><td>Polar Electro</td><td>https://www.polar.com/</td><td>Or any other device capable of recording heart rate continuously and that can pair with the chosen watch.</td></tr><tr><td>Clipboard</td><td>Staples</td><td>https://www.staples.com/clipboards</td><td>To record any in-field measures.</td></tr><tr><td>Colour printer</td><td>HP Laser Colour Printer</td><td>https://www.hp.com/</td><td>To print maps.</td></tr><tr><td>Computer&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Lenovo IdeaPad</td><td>https://www.lenovo.com/in/en/c/laptops/ideapad/</td><td>Ensure the device chosen is capable of running your chosen orienteering map and course making software.</td></tr><tr><td>GPS Sports watch</td><td>Polar Electro</td><td>https://www.polar.com/</td><td>Or any other GPS watch with a sampling rate of 1&amp;ndash;3 s.</td></tr><tr><td>OCAD for Orienteering&amp;nbsp;</td><td>OCAD</td><td>https://www.ocad.com/en/</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OpenOrienteeringMapper</td><td>Open orienteering</td><td>https://www.openorienteering.org/apps/mapper/</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Orienteering Compass (for more advanced orienteers)</td><td>Suunto Oy</td><td>https://www.suunto.com/en-in/News/Suunto-introduces-stable-and-fast-AIM-compasses-for-competitive-orienteers/</td><td>Or any other compass model capable of orienting to Magnetic North and setting a bearing angle.</td></tr><tr><td>Orienteering control marker OR pin flag OR flagging tape OR pylon</td><td>Silva-USA (orienteering control markers) OR Amazon.com</td><td>n/a</td><td>Choose an item to mark each checkpoint location that is most feasible for your intervention.</td></tr><tr><td>Pen</td><td>Staples</td><td>https://www.staples.com</td><td>To record any in-field measures.</td></tr><tr><td>Plastic paper sleeve</td><td>Staples</td><td>https://www.staples.com/sheet-protectors/</td><td>To protect maps from weather.</td></tr><tr><td>Smartphone capable of running the MapRun Application</td><td>Apple, iPhone 12</td><td>https://www.apple.com/iphone/</td><td>Required if using the MapRun application as per step step 4.2.2.</td></tr></tbody></table>

orienteering as a tool for cognitive research: an implementation guide

The sport of orienteering combines physical activity with spatial navigation. Using only a map and a compass, the orienteer must locate a series of checkpoints over unfamiliar terrain using any navigational route they choose and while moving as quickly as possible. Although expert orienteers have superior spatial memory and navigational abilities, even a single session of orienteering can benefit cognition, suggesting that orienteering may be a promising way to train the brain. Research interventions involving orienteering may be especially beneficial for staving off Alzheimer's disease and related dementias that are afflicted by early impairments in wayfinding and spatial cognition. Though orienteering has gained traction in recent literature, certain barriers exist for researchers who are unfamiliar with the sport and wish to implement an intervention. Specifically, a lack of research-based resources for creating orienteering maps and courses may prevent those wishing to study orienteering from designing an intervention. Therefore, this report provides the fundamental information needed to develop orienteering maps and courses and how to implement orienteering interventions in a research setting.

Orienteering performance
Our previous work analyzed the navigational performance of 41 participants who engaged in orienteering5. For a comprehensive understanding of the study methodology, refer to Waddington et al.5.
In this study, 19 participants engaged in orienteering at a vigorous (running) intensity, while 22 performed it at a moderate orienteering (walking) intensity. Navigational performance was determined by calculating the ratio of the distance traveled by the participant to the most optimal route for the orienteering course. This analysis assumes that participants traveling farther than the most efficient route are making navigational errors, thereby extending their distance taken to complete the orienteering course. A ratio of 1 thus indicates that the participant completed the orienteering intervention course using the most efficient route without making any errors.
The most optimal route across the orienteering course was determined by an expert-level orienteer. This route was measured multiple times using a count-meter in both the forward and reverse directions by different researchers for a total of six measures. Using the average of these measures, the most efficient route of the orienteering intervention course was determined to be 1300 m.
The average distance taken to complete the orienteering course for participants orienteering at a vigorous exercise intensity was 1415.79 &#177; 162.25 m, and 1360 &#177; 149.83 m for those orienteering at a moderate intensity. In terms of the ratio of the distance traveled to the most optimal route, the average ratio for the vigorous intensity orienteering group was 1.09 &#177; 0.12 (range: 0.95-1.35) and 1.05 &#177; 0.12 (range: 0.96-1.48) for the moderate intensity orienteering group (Figure 6). These results reveal that participants orienting at either a vigorous or moderate-intensity traveled further than the optimal route, indicating the presence of navigational errors that are typical for novices and expected to improve with training. Comparing these values to the visualized route captured by the GPS sports watch, as in Figure 5, can further indicate navigational performance.
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66833/66833fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: Navigational efficiency ratio at different orienteering exercise intensities. The figure illustrates the mean &#177; SD of the navigational efficiency ratio of participants completing an orienteering course at either a moderate or vigorous exercise intensity. The ratio was calculated as the distance traveled by the participant (as determined by a GPS sports watch) divided by the most optimal route length of 1300 m, and a value of 1 indicates that the course was completed without navigational errors. Data has previously been reported in&#160; Waddington et al.5. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66833/66833fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Orienteering as a Tool for Cognitive Research: An Implementation Guide

The sport of orienteering is emerging as an effective way to train both the body and brain as it combines physical activity with spatial navigation. The current manuscript offers a guide on how to implement the sport of orienteering in research.

The sport of orienteering combines physical activity with spatial navigation. Using only a map and a compass, the orienteer must locate a series of ...

orienteering-as-a-tool-for-cognitive-research-an-implementation-guide

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

685 Views.  McMaster University. The sport of orienteering is emerging as an effective way to train both the body and brain as it combines physical activity with spatial navigation. The current manuscript offers a guide on how to implement the sport of orienteering in research.

Video: Orienteering as a Tool for Cognitive Research: An Implementation Guide

Practical Methodology of Cognitive Tasks Within a Navigational Assessment

This paper describes an approach for measuring navigation accuracy relative to cognitive skills. The methodology behind the assessment will thus be clearly outlined in a step-by-step manner. Navigational skills are important when trying to find symbols within a speech-generating device (SGD) that has a dynamic screen and taxonomical organization. The following skills have been found to impact children&#8217;s ability to find symbols when navigating within the levels of an SGD: sustained attention, categorization, cognitive flexibility, and fluid reasoning1,2. According to past studies, working memory was not correlated with navigation1,2.
The materials needed for this method include a computerized tablet, an augmentative and alternative communication application, a booklet of symbols, and the Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised (Leiter-R)3. This method has been used in two previous studies. Robillard, Mayer-Crittenden, Roy-Charland, Minor-Corriveau and B&#233;langer1 assessed typically developing children, while Rondeau, Robillard and Roy-Charland2 assessed children and adolescents with a diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder. The direct observation of this method will facilitate the replication of this study for researchers. It will also help clinicians that work with children who have complex communication needs to determine the children&#8217;s ability to navigate an SGD with taxonomical categorization.

Children who have complex communication needs can benefit from the use of a speech-generating device (SGD). Cognitive skills were identified as having an impact on the ability to navigate between levels of SGDs. This protocol describes the steps needed for Speech-language Pathologists to assess cognitive skills and navigational abilities.

This paper describes an approach for measuring navigation accuracy relative to cognitive skills. The methodology behind the assessment will thus be ...

Measuring Attention and Visual Processing Speed by Model-based Analysis of Temporal-order Judgments

This protocol describes how to conduct temporal-order experiments to measure visual processing speed and the attentional resource distribution. The proposed method is based on a new and synergistic combination of three components: the temporal-order judgments (TOJ) paradigm, Bundesen&#39;s Theory of Visual Attention (TVA), and a hierarchical Bayesian estimation framework. The method provides readily interpretable parameters, which are supported by the theoretical and neurophysiological underpinnings of TVA. Using TOJs, TVA-based estimates can be obtained for a broad range of stimuli, whereas traditional paradigms used with TVA are mainly limited to letters and digits. Finally, the meaningful parameters of the proposed model allow for the establishment of a hierarchical Bayesian model. Such a statistical model allows assessing results in one coherent analysis both on the subject and the group level.
To demonstrate the feasibility and versatility of this new approach, three experiments are reported with attention manipulations in synthetic pop-out displays, natural images, and a cued letter-report paradigm.

Temporal-order judgments can be used to estimate processing speed parameters and attentional weights and thereby to infer the mechanisms of attentional processing. This methodology can be applied to a wide range of visual stimuli and works with many attention manipulations.

This protocol describes how to conduct temporal-order experiments to measure visual processing speed and the attentional resource distribution. The ...

Using MazeSuite and Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy to Study Learning in Spatial Navigation

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted virtual 3D environments, track a participants' behavioral performance within the virtual environment and synchronize with external devices for physiological and neuroimaging measures, including electroencephalogram and eye tracking.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables continuous, noninvasive, and portable monitoring of changes in cerebral blood oxygenation related to human brain functions2-7. Over the last decade fNIR is used to effectively monitor cognitive tasks such as attention, working memory and problem solving7-11. fNIR can be implemented in the form of a wearable and minimally intrusive device; it has the capacity to monitor brain activity in ecologically valid environments. 
Cognitive functions assessed through task performance involve patterns of brain activation of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that vary from the initial novel task performance, after practice and during retention12. Using positron emission tomography (PET), Van Horn and colleagues found that regional cerebral blood flow was activated in the right frontal lobe during the encoding (i.e., initial na&iuml;ve performance) of spatial navigation of virtual mazes while there was little to no activation of the frontal regions after practice and during retention tests. Furthermore, the effects of contextual interference, a learning phenomenon related to organization of practice, are evident when individuals acquire multiple tasks under different practice schedules13,14. High contextual interference (random practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a non-sequential, unpredictable order. Low contextual interference (blocked practice schedule) is created when the tasks to be learned are presented in a predictable order.
Our goal here is twofold: first to illustrate the experimental protocol design process and the use of MazeSuite, and second, to demonstrate the setup and deployment of the fNIR brain activity monitoring system using Cognitive Optical Brain Imaging (COBI) Studio software15. To illustrate our goals, a subsample from a study is reported to show the use of both MazeSuite and COBI Studio in a single experiment. The study involves the assessment of cognitive activity of the PFC during the acquisition and learning of computer maze tasks for blocked and random orders. Two right-handed adults (one male, one female) performed 315 acquisition, 30 retention and 20 transfer trials across four days. Design, implementation, data acquisition and analysis phases of the study were explained with the intention to provide a guideline for future studies.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIR) is an optical brain imaging technique that enables noninvasive and portable monitoring of cerebral blood oxygenation changes. This paper summarizes collective use of MazeSuite and fNIR within a cognitive processing learning paradigm.

MazeSuite is a complete toolset to prepare, present and analyze navigational and spatial experiments1. MazeSuite can be used to design and edit adapted ...

Neuroscience

The (Spatial) Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different versions of the paradigm, spatial language use and memory for object location are tested under different, experimentally manipulated conditions. This allows us to tease apart proposed models explaining the influence of object knowledge on spatial language (e.g., spatial demonstratives), and spatial memory, as well as understanding the parameters that affect demonstrative choice and spatial memory more broadly. Key to the development of the method was the need to collect data on language use (e.g., spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that&#34;) and spatial memory data under strictly controlled conditions, while retaining a degree of ecological validity. The language version (section 3.1) of the memory game tests how conditions affect language use. Participants refer verbally to objects placed at different locations (e.g., using spatial demonstratives: &#34;this/that red circle&#34;). Different parameters can be experimentally manipulated: the distance from the participant, the position of a conspecific, and for example whether the participant owns, knows, or sees the object while referring to it. The same parameters can be manipulated in the memory version of the memory game (section 3.2). This version tests the effects of the different conditions on object-location memory. Following object placement, participants get 10 seconds to memorize the object&#39;s location. After the object and location cues are removed, participants verbally direct the experimenter to move a stick to indicate where the object was. The difference between the memorized and the actual location shows the direction and strength of the memory error, allowing comparisons between the influences of the respective parameters.

The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition

We present a protocol to explore the relationship between spatial language production, spatial memory, and object knowledge. The procedure allows experimental manipulation of, and control over, conditions of object knowledge, language at instruction, and physical location, thus teasing apart cognitive and linguistic models describing interactions between these variables.

The memory game paradigm is a behavioral procedure to explore the relationship between language, spatial memory, and object knowledge. Using two different ...

Methodology for Establishing a Community-Wide Life Laboratory for Capturing Unobtrusive and Continuous Remote Activity and Health Data

An end-to-end suite of technologies has been established for the unobtrusive and continuous monitoring of health and activity changes occurring in the daily life of older adults over extended periods of time. The technology is aggregated into a system that incorporates the principles of being minimally obtrusive, while generating secure, privacy protected, continuous objective data in real-world (home-based) settings for months to years. The system includes passive infrared presence sensors placed throughout the home, door contact sensors installed on exterior doors, connected physiological monitoring devices (such as scales), medication boxes, and wearable actigraphs. Driving sensors are also installed in participants' cars and computer (PC, tablet or smartphone) use is tracked. Data is annotated via frequent online self-report options that provide vital information with regard to the data that is difficult to infer via sensors such as internal states (e.g., pain, mood, loneliness), as well as data referent to activity pattern interpretation (e.g., visitors, rearranged furniture). Algorithms have been developed using the data obtained to identify functional domains key to health or disease activity monitoring, including mobility (e.g., room transitions, steps, gait speed), physiologic function (e.g., weight, body mass index, pulse), sleep behaviors (e.g., sleep time, trips to the bathroom at night), medication adherence (e.g., missed doses), social engagement (e.g., time spent out of home, time couples spend together), and cognitive function (e.g., time on computer, mouse movements, characteristics of online form completion, driving ability). Change detection of these functions provides a sensitive marker for the application in health surveillance of acute illnesses (e.g., viral epidemic) to the early detection of prodromal dementia syndromes. The system is particularly suitable for monitoring the efficacy of clinical interventions in natural history studies of geriatric syndromes and in clinical trials.

Unobtrusive sensors and pervasive computing technology incorporated into the daily home life of older adults enables meaningful health and activity changes to be recorded continuously for months to years, providing ecologically valid, high frequency, multi-domain data for research or clinical use.

An end-to-end suite of technologies has been established for the unobtrusive and continuous monitoring of health and activity changes occurring in the ...

Novel Object Recognition and Object Location Behavioral Testing in Mice on a Budget

Ethologically relevant behavioral testing is a critical component of any study that uses mouse models to study the cognitive effects of various physiological or pathological changes. The object location task (OLT) and the novel object recognition task (NORT) are two effective behavioral tasks commonly used to reveal the function and relative health of specific brain regions involved in memory. While both of these tests exploit the inherent preference of mice for the novelty to reveal memory for previously encountered objects, the OLT primarily evaluates spatial learning, which relies heavily on hippocampal activity. The NORT, in contrast, evaluates non-spatial learning of object identity, which relies on multiple brain regions. Both tasks require an open-field-testing arena, objects with equivalent intrinsic value to mice, appropriate environmental cues, and video recording equipment and the software. Commercially available systems, while convenient, can be costly. This manuscript details a simple, cost-effective method for building the arenas and setting up the equipment necessary to perform the OLT and NORT. Furthermore, the manuscript describes an efficient testing protocol that incorporates both OLT and NORT and provides typical methods for data acquisition and analysis, as well as representative results. Successful completion of these tests can provide valuable insight into the memory function of various mouse model systems and appraise the underlying neural regions that support these functions.

Here we provide a protocol which includes comprehensive instructions for the economical establishment of murine object location and novel object recognition behavioral testing, including the design, cost, and construction of required equipment as well as execution of behavioral testing, data collection, and analysis.

Ethologically relevant behavioral testing is a critical component of any study that uses mouse models to study the cognitive effects of various ...

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations for their chronological age in the areas of reading, writing, and/or mathematics. Each of the disorders making up the LDs involve different deficits; however, some commonalities can be found within that heterogeneity, such in terms of learning self-regulation and metacognition. Unlike in early ages and later educational levels, there are hardly any evidence-based evaluation protocols for adults with LDs. LDs influence academic performance but also have serious consequences in professional, social, and family contexts. In response to this, the current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs. The assessment is carried out through analysis of the on-line learning process using a variety methods, techniques, and sensors (e.g., eye tracking, facial expressions of emotion, physiological responses, concurrent verbalizations, log files, screen recordings of human-machine interactions) and off-line methods (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, and self-report measures). This theoretically-driven and empirically-based guideline aims to provide an accurate assessment of LDs in adulthood in order to design effective prevention and intervention proposals.

The current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs.

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations ...

A Visuospatial Planning Task Coupled with Eye-Tracker and Electroencephalogram Systems

The planning process, characterized by the capability to formulate an organized plan to reach a goal, is essential for human goal-directed behavior. Since planning is compromised in several neuropsychiatric disorders, the implementation of proper clinical and experimental tests to examine planning is critical. Due to the nature of the deployment of planning, in which several cognitive domains participate, the assessment of planning and the design of behavioral paradigms coupled with neuroimaging methods are current challenges in cognitive neuroscience. A planning task was evaluated in combination with an electroencephalogram (EEG) system and eye movement recordings in 27 healthy adult participants. Planning can be separated into two stages: a mental planning stage in which a sequence of steps is internally represented and an execution stage in which motor action is used to achieve a previously planned goal. Our protocol included a planning task and a control task. The planning task involved solving 36 maze trials, each representing a zoo map. The task had four periods: i) planning, where the subjects were instructed to plan a path to visit the locations of four animals according to a set of rules; ii) maintenance, where the subjects had to retain the planned path in their working memory; iii) execution, where the subjects used eye movements to trace the previously planned path as indicated by the eye-tracker system; and iv) response, where the subjects reported the order of the visited animals. The control task had a similar structure, but the cognitive planning component was removed by modifying the task goal. The spatial and temporal patterns of the EEG revealed that planning induces a gradual and lasting rise in frontal-midline theta activity (FM&#952;) over time. The source of this activity was identified within the prefrontal cortex by source analyses. Our results suggested that the experimental paradigm combining EEG and eye-tracker systems was optimal for evaluating cognitive planning.

The study of cognitive planning combining EEG and eye-tracking systems provides a multimodal approach to investigate the neural mechanisms that mediate cognitive control and goal-directed behavior in humans. Here, we describe a protocol for investigating the role of brain oscillations and eye movements in planning performance.

The planning process, characterized by the capability to formulate an organized plan to reach a goal, is essential for human goal-directed behavior. Since ...

Exploring the Neural Correlates of Cognitive Reappraisal in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Using Task-based Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) show heightened brain activity in limbic and orbitofrontal regions when confronted with negative emotions, which could be associated with impairments in emotion regulation skills. The ability to regulate emotions is a necessary coping mechanism when facing emotionally distressing situations, and deliberate emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal have been extensively studied in the general population. Despite this, little is known about potential deliberate emotion regulation deficits in OCD patients and the associated neural correlates. Here, we describe a protocol to investigate the neural correlates of deliberate emotion regulation (cognitive reappraisal) using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in OCD patients in comparison to a matched control sample. This protocol follows current gold standards for neuroimaging studies and includes both task activation and connectivity analysis (as well as behavioral data) to allow a more complete investigation. Therefore, we expect it will contribute to expanding the knowledge of the neural correlates of emotion (dys)regulation in OCD, and it could also be applied to explore emotion regulation deficits in other psychiatric disorders.

We introduce a protocol for exploring the neural correlates of a cognitive emotion regulation task, namely cognitive reappraisal, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. This protocol was used in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and healthy controls but can also be used in other clinical samples.

Patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) show heightened brain activity in limbic and orbitofrontal regions when confronted with negative ...

Observational Research

Source: Laboratories of <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Gary_Lewandowski">Gary Lewandowski</a>, Dave Strohmetz, and Natalie Ciarocco&#8212;Monmouth University

If you want to know how someone thinks or feels, you can ask that person questions. &#160;Another approach is to observe how the person is acting or look for indicators of how they acted in the past. While observations may seem revealing, it isn&#8217;t always easy to know if they are truly accurate. For instance, you may see a person smiling and assume they are happy, when in reality they are annoyed and merely being polite.
The purpose of science is to move beyond an individual&#8217;s own views of the self because they are inherently skewed by that individual&#8217;s expectations, previous experience, personal biases, motivations, emotions, etc. While a person may have unique insight into one&#8217;s self, these insight may not accurately represent reality. Put more simply, what a person says, does not always match up well with what they actually do. For this reason, researchers should incorporate a variety of measures (e.g., asking participants to report how they feel, but also observing actual behavior) in order to more accurately capture how the person truly feels.
This video demonstrates a correlational design where researchers measure students&#8217; homesickness in two distinct ways: (1) a homesickness scale, and (2) by observing how the student has decorated his or her dorm room.&#160;
Psychological studies often use higher sample sizes than studies in other sciences. A large number of participants helps to ensure that the population under study is better represented, i.e., the margin of error accompanied by studying human behavior is sufficiently accounted for. In this video, we demonstrate this experiment using just one participant. However, as represented in the results, we used a total of 63 participants to reach the experiment&#8217;s conclusions.

Observational Research: Observations and Correlations

Source: Laboratories of Gary Lewandowski, Dave Strohmetz, and Natalie Ciarocco&#8212;Monmouth University

If you want to know how someone thinks or feels, ...