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In This Article

  • Summary
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Protocol
  • Representative Results
  • Discussion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Materials
  • References
  • Reprints and Permissions

Summary

The electroporation of primate cerebral organoids provides a precise and efficient approach to introduce transient genetic modification(s) into different progenitor types and neurons in a model system close to primate (patho)physiological neocortex development. This allows the study of neurodevelopmental and evolutionary processes and can also be applied for disease modeling.

Abstract

The cerebral cortex is the outermost brain structure and is responsible for the processing of sensory input and motor output; it is seen as the seat of higher-order cognitive abilities in mammals, in particular, primates. Studying gene functions in primate brains is challenging due to technical and ethical reasons, but the establishment of the brain organoid technology has enabled the study of brain development in traditional primate models (e.g., rhesus macaque and common marmoset), as well as in previously experimentally inaccessible primate species (e.g., great apes), in an ethically justifiable and less technically demanding system. Moreover, human brain organoids allow the advanced investigation of neurodevelopmental and neurological disorders.

As brain organoids recapitulate many processes of brain development, they also represent a powerful tool to identify differences in, and to functionally compare, the genetic determinants underlying the brain development of various species in an evolutionary context. A great advantage of using organoids is the possibility to introduce genetic modifications, which permits the testing of gene functions. However, the introduction of such modifications is laborious and expensive. This paper describes a fast and cost-efficient approach to genetically modify cell populations within the ventricle-like structures of primate cerebral organoids, a subtype of brain organoids. This method combines a modified protocol for the reliable generation of cerebral organoids from human-, chimpanzee-, rhesus macaque-, and common marmoset-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) with a microinjection and electroporation approach. This provides an effective tool for the study of neurodevelopmental and evolutionary processes that can also be applied for disease modeling.

Introduction

Investigating the (patho)physiological development and evolution of the cerebral cortex is a formidable task that is hampered by the lack of suitable model systems. Previously, such studies were confined to two-dimensional cell culture models (such as primary neural progenitor or neuronal cell cultures) and evolutionarily distant animal models (such as rodents)1,2. While these models are useful for addressing certain questions, they are limited in modeling the complexity, cell type composition, cellular architecture, and gene expression patterns of the developing human neocortex in healthy and diseased states.....

Protocol

1. Culture of primate iPSCs

NOTE: Due to its robustness, the method presented here can be applied to any primate iPSC line. In this article, we describe cerebral organoid production from human (iLonza2.2)29, chimpanzee (Sandra A)30, rhesus macaque (iRh33.1)29, and common marmoset (cj_160419_5)31 iPSC lines. The culture conditions are summarized in Table 1. See th.......

Representative Results

The protocol described here allows the efficient generation of cerebral organoids from human, chimpanzee, rhesus macaque, and common marmoset iPSC lines with minimal timing alterations required between species (Figure 1A). These organoids can be electroporated in the range of 20 dps to 50 dps, depending on the accessibility of the ventricle-like structures and the abundance of the cell population(s) of interest. However, prior to electroporation, it is important to determine whether the cere.......

Discussion

The procedures described here represent a unified protocol for the generation of cerebral organoids from different primate species with a targeted electroporation approach. This allows the ectopic expression of a GOI in a model system that emulates primate (including human) (patho)physiological neocortex development. This unified protocol for the generation of primate cerebral organoids uses the same materials (e.g., media) and protocol steps for all four primate species presented. Developmental differences between these.......

Acknowledgements

We apologize to all the researchers whose work could not be cited due to space limitations. We thank Ulrich Bleyer of the technical services at DPZ and Hartmut Wolf of the workshop at MPI-CBG for the construction of the Petri dish electrode chambers; Stoyan Petkov and Rüdiger Behr for providing human (iLonza2.2), rhesus macaque (iRh33.1) and marmoset (cj_160419_5) iPSCs; Sabrina Heide for the cryosectioning and immunofluorescence staining; and Neringa Liutikaite and César Mateo Bastidas Betancourt for critically reading the manuscript. Work in the laboratory of W.B.H. was supported by an ERA-NET NEURON (MicroKin) grant. Work in the laboratory of M.H. was sup....

Materials

NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
20 µL MicroloaderEppendorf5242956003
2-MercaptoethanolMerck8.05740.0005
35 mm cell culture dishesSarstedt83.3900
60 mm cell culture dishesCytoOneCC7682-3359
Activin ASigma-AldrichSRP3003
AOC1SelleckchemS7217
Axio Observer.Z1 Inverted Fluorescence MicroscopeZeissreplacable by comparable fluorescent microscopes
AZD0530Selleckchem S1006
B-27 Supplement with Vitamin A (retinoic acid, RA) (50x)Gibco17504-044
B-27 Supplement without Vitamin A (50x)Gibco12587-010
BTX ECM 830 Square Wave Electroporation SystemBTX45-2052
CGP77675Sigma-AldrichSML0314
Chimpanzee induced pluripotent stem cell line Sandra Adoi: 10.7554/elife.18683 
Common marmoset induced pluripotent stem cell line cj_160419_5doi: 10.3390/cells9112422
Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium/Nutrient Mixture F-12 (DMEM/F12)Gibco11320-033
Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (DPBS)Gibco14190-094pH 7.0−7.3; warm to room temperature before use
Fast GreenSigma-AldrichF7252-5G
ForskolinSelleckchem2449
GlutaMAX Supplement (100x)Gibco35050-061glutamine substitute supplement
Heparin (1 mg/mL stock)Sigma-AldrichH3149
Human induced pluripotent stem cell line iLonza2.2doi: 10.3390/cells9061349
Human Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3)PeproTech450-03
InsulinSigma-Aldrich19278
IWR1Sigma-AldrichI0161
Leica MS5 stereomicroscope (MDG 17 transmitted-light base)Leica10473849replacable by comparable stereomicroscopes
MatrigelCorning354277/354234basement membrane matrix; alternatively, Geltrex (ThermoFisher Scientific, A1413302) can be used
MEM Non-Essential Amino Acids Solution (100x)Sigma-AldrichM7145
N-2 Supplement (100x)Gibco17502-048
Neurobasal mediumGibco21103-049
ParafilmSigma-AldrichP7793
Paraformaldehyde Merck818715handle with causion due to cancerogenecity
Penicillin/Streptomycin (10,000 U/mL)PanBiotechP06-07100
Petri dish electrode chamberself-produced (see Supplemental File 1)also commertially available
Pre-Pulled Glass PipettesWPITIP10LTborosilicate glass pipettes with long taper, 10 µm tip diameter
Pro-Survival CompoundMerckMillipore529659
Recombinant Human/Murine/RatBrain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF)PeproTechAF-450-02
Rhesus macaque induced pluripotent stem cell line iRh33.1doi: 10.3390/cells9061349
StemMACS iPS-Brew XFMiltenyi Biotech130-104-368
StemPro Accutase Cell Dissociation ReagentGibcoA1110501proteolytic and collagenolytic enzyme mixture
TrypLEGibco12604-013recombinant trypsin substitute; warm to room temperature before use
Ultra-Low Attachment 96-well platesCostar7007
Y27632Stemcell Technologies72305

References

  1. Marchetto, M. C. N., Winner, B., Gage, F. H. Pluripotent stem cells in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases. Human Molecular Genetics. 19 (R1), R71-R76 (2010).
  2. Zhao, X., Bhattacharyya, A. Huma....

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