We would like to thank Dr. Camille Keller of Wesleyan University for technical support. Special thanks to Professor Lindsay D. Eltis and Jenna K. Capyk from the University of British Columbia, as well as Christian Whitman from the University of Texas at Austin, for their advice regarding anaerobic protein purification methods and the use of an O2-sensitive electrode.

The authors have no competing financial interests or other conflicts of interest.

The critical steps in obtaining active, purified DesB protein involve the forming and maintaining of the reduced Fe(II) active site in the enzyme. As such, correct performance of the induction, purification, concentration, and desalting steps are essential to successfully obtaining active enzyme. Inducing protein expression in the presence of 1 mM ferrous ammonium sulfate ensures that Fe(II) is correctly incorporated into the active site of DesB. This method is inspired by studies like those with amidohydrolase metalloen...

Enzymes that utilize iron or other metals to activate oxygen are often susceptible to inactivation during the purification process because of their removal from the reducing environment of a cell. Therefore, these proteins must be used as cell lysates, be subjected to external reducing agents, or be purified anaerobically to ensure that they have optimal enzymatic activity1,2,3,4. For those enzymes that are oxygen-sensitive (specifically iron-containing enzymes), performing all the purification and characterization steps while maintaining anaerobic conditions is necessary to fully characterize them. This has led researchers to develop entire laboratory set-ups within the confines of anaerobic chambers for studies ranging from protein expression through crystallography5,6,7,8.
Herein, we report methods for the anaerobic purification and kinetic characterization of the enzyme DesB using an oxygen electrode system. DesB is a gallate dioxygenase from the bacterium Sphingobium sp. strain SYK-6 that is related to LigAB, a protocatecuate dioxygenase from the same organism. Both enzymes belong to the type II protocatechuate dioxygenase (PCAD) superfamily which has not been extensively studied to date9, likely in part due to enzymes of this superfamily being susceptible to inactivation when purified using standard aerobic protein purification methods. Since some of the PCAD enzymes display substrate promiscuity while others are substrate-specific2,10, further characterization of this superfamily is necessary to identify specificity determinants. As has been observed in several enzyme superfamilies11,12,13,14,15, small molecules can alter activity via direct competitive inhibition or the binding of molecules to separate allosteric pockets which causes an increase or decrease in enzymatic activity16. While kinetics alone cannot differentiate the binding location of a modulator, determining the magnitude of an activity change is important for understanding the effects. As such, methods for kinetic characterization of native DesB activity and its activity in the presence of 4-nitrocatechol (4NC), a compound commonly used to characterize and inhibit dioxygenase enzymes2,17,18, are shown.
DesB is able to break down gallate, a lignin-derived aromatic compound, via an extradiol dioxygenase (EDO) reaction in which ring opening is catalyzed using oxygen as one of the substrates10,19. This enzymatic reaction occurs within the context of the breakdown of lignin, an aromatic heteropolymer found in the cell wall of plants. Lignin can be depolymerized, yielding a variety of aromatic compounds that can be further broken down into central metabolites3,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33. Extradiol dioxygenases (EDO) catalyze a ring opening reaction on dihydroxylated aromatic compounds, where cleavage occurs adjacent to a metal-coordinated diol; in contrast, intradiol dioxygenases cleave analogous aromatic compounds between the two hydroxyl groups (Figure 1). EDOs, like many other metalloenzymes, have a divalent metal center for coordinating Fe(II) composed of a two-histidine, one-carboxylate triad9,34,35. These metalloenzymes become oxidized, through either autoxidation or mechanism-based inactivation, whereas the enzyme is rendered inactive2,36,37,38.
In the experimental procedures described in this manuscript, we utilize DesB, a member of the PCAD superfamily from the bacterium Sphingobium sp. SYK-6, to catalyze the addition of oxygen across the C4-C5 bond of gallate (Figure 2A). The regiochemistry of this cleavage is analogous to LigAB, which is a protocatechuate-4,5-dioxygenase (Figure 2B). Thus far, investigations of this gallate dioxygenase include no reports of compounds that inhibit DesB10,19,39. With the use of aerobic purification methods, DesB exhibited variable activity, while with the use of anaerobic methods we were able to consistently obtain protein with reproducible activity. The kinetic studies described here show the methods for anaerobic purification of DesB, kinetic characterization of the reaction of DesB with gallate, and the inhibition of DesB by 4-nitrocatechol (4NC).

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl &#946;-D-1-thiogalactopyranodise</td>
			<td>Gold Bio Technologies</td>
			<td>I2481C50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>161-0400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium persulfate</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>161-0700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>30% Acrylamide</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>161-0158</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N&#39;tetramethyl-ethylenediamine</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>161-0801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amylose Resin High Flow</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>E8022S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21 (DE3) competent Escherichia coli cells</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>C2527I</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-cysteine</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C7352</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>gallic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7384</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-nitrocatechol</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>N15553</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ferrous ammonium sulfate</td>
			<td>Mallinckrodt</td>
			<td>5064</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dithionite</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>33381-22</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>wheaton serum bottles</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>06-406G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25 mm Acrodisc PF Syringe Filter with Supor Membrane</td>
			<td>Pall Corportation</td>
			<td>4187</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>400 mL Amicon Stirred Cell Concentrator</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>UFSC40001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>76 mm Millipore Ultracel 10 kDa cutoff reconsituted cellulose membrane filter</td>
			<td>EMD Millipore</td>
			<td>PLGC07610</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DL-dithiothreitol</td>
			<td>Gold Bio Technologies</td>
			<td>DTT50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sephadex G-25 coarse desalting gal column</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>17-0033-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 mL Crimp-Top Vials</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>03-391-38</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygraph Plus Electrode Control Unit</td>
			<td>Hansatech Instruments</td>
			<td>OXYG1 Plus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen Eletrode Chamber</td>
			<td>Hansatech Instruments</td>
			<td>DW1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode Disc</td>
			<td>Hansatech Instruments</td>
			<td>S1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PTFE (0.0125 mmX25mm) 30m reel</td>
			<td>Hansatech Instruments</td>
			<td>S4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrode cleaning Kit</td>
			<td>Hansatech Instruments</td>
			<td>S16</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spacer paper</td>
			<td>Zig Zag</td>
			<td>available at any gas station</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>He-series Dri-Lab glove box</td>
			<td>Vacuum/Atmospheres Company</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HE-493 Dri-Train</td>
			<td>Vacuum/Atmospheres Company</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-Ended Micro-Tapered Stainless Steel Spatula</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>21-401-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DWK Life Sciences Kimble Kontes Flex Column Economy Column</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>k420400-1530</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 &#956;L, Model 701 N SYR, Cemented NDL 26s ga, 2 in, point stlye 2 syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>80300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DWK Life Sciences Kimble Kontes Flex Column Economy Column</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>K420401-1505</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Emulsiflex-C5 high-pressure homogenizer</td>
			<td>Avestin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B-PER Complete Bacterial Protein Extraction Reagent</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>89821</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme from chicken egg white</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>12650-88-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>151-21-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ampicillin</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>7177-48-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptone</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP-1421-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1422-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S271-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P217-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>M33-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dextrose</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D16-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S318-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP153-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Maltose</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP684-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>G46-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

anaerobic protein purification and kinetic analysis via oxygen electrode for studying desb dioxygenase activity and inhibition

Oxygen-sensitive proteins, including those enzymes which utilize oxygen as a substrate, can have reduced stability when purified using traditional aerobic purification methods. This manuscript illustrates the technical details involved in the anaerobic purification process, including the preparation of buffers and reagents, the methods for column chromatography in a glove box, and the desalting of the protein prior to kinetics. Also described are the methods for preparing and using an oxygen electrode to perform kinetic characterization of an oxygen-utilizing enzyme. These methods are illustrated using the dioxygenase enzyme DesB, a gallate dioxygenase from the bacterium Sphingobium sp. strain SYK-6.

Shown is the SDS-PAGE gel analysis of individual fractions from purification of the DesB-maltose binding protein (MBP) fusion construct (Figure 3). The gel reveals that the protein is pure (MW = 91.22 kDa), except for the presence of DesB (MW = 49.22 kDa) and MBP protein domain (42 kDa) cleaved from each other. Fractions E2 and E3 were selected for concentration (step 4.2).
Reproducible results from...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Anaerobic Protein Purification and Kinetic Analysis via Oxygen Electrode for Studying DesB Dioxygenase Activity and Inhibition at JoVE.com

Anaerobic Protein Purification and Kinetic Analysis via Oxygen Electrode for Studying DesB Dioxygenase Activity and Inhibition

Here we present a protocol for anaerobic protein purification, anaerobic protein concentration, and subsequent kinetic characterization using an oxygen electrode system. The method is illustrated using the enzyme DesB, a dioxygenase enzyme which is more stable and active when purified and stored in an anaerobic environment.

Oxygen-sensitive proteins, including those enzymes which utilize oxygen as a substrate, can have reduced stability when purified using traditional aerobic ...

anaerobic-protein-purification-kinetic-analysis-via-oxygen-electrode

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

8.4K Views.  Wesleyan University. Here we present a protocol for anaerobic protein purification, anaerobic protein concentration, and subsequent kinetic characterization using an oxygen electrode system. The method is illustrated using the enzyme DesB, a dioxygenase enzyme which is more stable and active when purified and stored in an anaerobic environment.

Video: Anaerobic Protein Purification and Kinetic Analysis via Oxygen Electrode for Studying DesB Dioxygenase Activity and Inhibition

Method for Identifying Small Molecule Inhibitors of the Protein-protein Interaction Between HCN1 and TRIP8b

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the excitability of neurons. The subcellular distribution of these channels in pyramidal neurons of hippocampal area CA1 is regulated by tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b interacting protein (TRIP8b), an auxiliary subunit. Genetic knockout of HCN pore forming subunits or TRIP8b, both lead to an increase in antidepressant-like behavior, suggesting that limiting the function of HCN channels may be useful as a treatment for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Despite significant therapeutic interest, HCN channels are also expressed in the heart, where they regulate rhythmicity. To circumvent off-target issues associated with blocking cardiac HCN channels, our lab has recently proposed targeting the protein-protein interaction between HCN and TRIP8b in order to specifically disrupt HCN channel function in the brain. TRIP8b binds to HCN pore forming subunits at two distinct interaction sites, although here the focus is on the interaction between the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domains of TRIP8b and the C terminal tail of HCN1. In this protocol, an expanded description of a method for purifying TRIP8b and executing a high throughput screen to identify small molecule inhibitors of the interaction between HCN and TRIP8b, is described. The method for high throughput screening utilizes a Fluorescence Polarization (FP) -based assay to monitor the binding of a large TRIP8b fragment to a fluorophore-tagged eleven amino acid peptide corresponding to the HCN1 C terminal tail. This method allows &#39;hit&#39; compounds to be identified based on the change in the polarization of emitted light. Validation assays are then performed to ensure that &#39;hit&#39; compounds are not artifactual.

The interaction between HCN channels and their auxiliary subunit has been identified as a therapeutic target in Major Depressive Disorder. Here, a fluorescence polarization-based method for identifying small molecule inhibitors of this protein-protein interaction, is presented.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the ...

Expression, Purification, and Antimicrobial Activity of S100A12

Calgranulin proteins are important mediators of innate immunity and are members of the S100 class of the EF-hand family of calcium binding proteins. Some S100 proteins have the capacity to bind transition metals with high affinity and effectively sequester them away from invading microbial pathogens in a process that is termed "nutritional immunity". S100A12 (EN-RAGE) binds both zinc and copper and is highly abundant in innate immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils. We report a refined method for the expression, enrichment and purification of S100A12 in its active, metal-binding configuration. Utilization of this protein in bacterial growth and viability analyses reveals that S100A12 has antimicrobial activity against the bacterial pathogen, Helicobacter pylori. The antimicrobial activity is predicated on the zinc-binding activity of S100A12, which chelates nutrient zinc, thereby starving H. pylori which requires zinc for growth and proliferation.

Here, we present a method to express and purify S100A12 (calgranulin C). We describe a protocol to measure its antimicrobial activity against the human pathogen H. pylori.

Calgranulin proteins are important mediators of innate immunity and are members of the S100 class of the EF-hand family of calcium binding proteins. Some ...

2 in 1: One-step Affinity Purification for the Parallel Analysis of Protein-Protein and Protein-Metabolite Complexes

Cellular processes are regulated by interactions between biological molecules such as proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids. While the investigation of protein-protein interactions (PPI) is no novelty, experimental approaches aiming to characterize endogenous protein-metabolite interactions (PMI) constitute a rather recent development. Herein, we present a protocol that allows simultaneous characterization of the PPI and PMI of a protein of choice, referred to as bait. Our protocol was optimized for Arabidopsis cell cultures and combines affinity purification (AP) with mass spectrometry (MS)-based protein and metabolite detection. In short, transgenic Arabidopsis lines, expressing bait protein fused to an affinity tag, are first lysed to obtain a native cellular extract. Anti-tag antibodies are used to pull down protein and metabolite partners of the bait protein. The affinity-purified complexes are extracted using a one-step methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)/methanol/water method. Whilst metabolites separate into either the polar or the hydrophobic phase, proteins can be found in the pellet. Both metabolites and proteins are then analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS or UPLC-MS/MS). Empty-vector (EV) control lines are used to exclude false positives. The major advantage of our protocol is that it enables identification of protein and metabolite partners of a target protein in parallel in near-physiological conditions (cellular lysate). The presented method is straightforward, fast, and can be easily adapted to biological systems other than plant cell cultures.

Protein-protein and protein-metabolite interactions are crucial for all cellular functions. Herein, we describe a protocol that allows parallel analysis of these interactions with a protein of choice. Our protocol was optimized for plant cell cultures and combines affinity purification with mass spectrometry-based protein and metabolite detection.

Cellular processes are regulated by interactions between biological molecules such as proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids. While the investigation of ...

Purification and Reconstitution of TRPV1 for Spectroscopic Analysis

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine and remain largely unknown. With recent advances in single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) shedding light on the structural features of agonist binding sites and the activation mechanism of several ion channels, the stage is set for an in-depth dynamic analysis of their gating mechanisms using spectroscopic approaches. Spectroscopic techniques such as electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and double electron-electron resonance (DEER) have been mainly restricted to the study of prokaryotic ion channels that can be purified in large quantities. The requirement for large amounts of functional and stable membrane proteins has hampered the study of mammalian ion channels using these approaches. EPR and DEER offer many advantages, including determination of the structure and dynamic changes of mobile protein regions, albeit at low resolution, that might be difficult to obtain by X-ray crystallography or cryo-EM, and monitoring reversible gating transition (i.e., closed, open, sensitized, and desensitized). Here, we provide protocols for obtaining milligrams of functional detergent-solubilized transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) that can be labeled for EPR and DEER spectroscopy.

This article describes specific methods to obtain biochemical quantities of detergent-solubilized TRPV1 for spectroscopic analysis. The combined protocols provide biochemical and biophysical tools that can be adapted to facilitate structural and functional studies for mammalian ion channels in a membrane-controlled environment.

Polymodal ion channels transduce multiple stimuli of different natures into allosteric changes; these dynamic conformations are challenging to determine ...

Efficient Purification and LC-MS/MS-based Assay Development for Ten-Eleven Translocation-2 5-Methylcytosine Dioxygenase

The epigenetic transcription regulation mediated by 5-methylcytosine (5mC) has played a critical role in eukaryotic development. Demethylation of these epigenetic marks is accomplished by sequential oxidation by ten-eleven translocation dioxygenases (TET1-3), followed by the thymine-DNA glycosylase-dependent base excision repair. Inactivation of the TET2 gene due to genetic mutations or by other epigenetic mechanisms is associated with a poor prognosis in patients with diverse cancers, especially hematopoietic malignancies. Here, we describe an efficient single step purification of enzymatically active untagged human TET2 dioxygenase using cation exchange chromatography. We further provide a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) approach that can separate and quantify the four normal DNA bases (A, T, G, and C), as well as the four modified cytosine bases (5-methyl, 5-hydroxymethyl, 5-formyl, and 5-carboxyl). This assay can be used to evaluate the activity of wild type and mutant TET2 dioxygenases.

Here, we present a protocol for an efficient single step purification of the active untagged human ten-eleven translocation-2 (TET2) 5-methylcytosine dioxygenase using ion-exchange chromatography and its assay using a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based approach.

The epigenetic transcription regulation mediated by 5-methylcytosine (5mC) has played a critical role in eukaryotic development. Demethylation of these ...

Sampling and Pretreatment of Tooth Enamel Carbonate for Stable Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Analysis

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of human and animal tooth enamel carbonate has been applied in paleodietary, paleoecological, and paleoenvironmental research from recent historical periods back to over 10 million years ago. Bulk approaches provide a representative sample for the period of enamel mineralization, while sequential samples within a tooth can track dietary and environmental changes during this period. While these methodologies have been widely applied and described in archaeology, ecology, and paleontology, there have been no explicit guidelines to aid in the selection of necessary lab equipment and to thoroughly describe detailed laboratory sampling and protocols. In this article, we document textually and visually, the entire process from sampling through pretreatment and diagenetic screening to make the methodology more widely available to researchers considering its application in a variety of laboratory settings.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of human and animal tooth enamel carbonate has been used as a proxy for individual diet and environmental reconstruction. Here, we provide a detailed description and visual documentation of bulk and sequential tooth enamel sampling as well as pretreatment of archaeological and paleontological samples.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of human and animal tooth enamel carbonate has been applied in paleodietary, paleoecological, and ...

Studying Protein Import into Chloroplasts Using Protoplasts

The chloroplast is an essential organelle that is responsible for various cellular processes in plants, such as photosynthesis and the production of many secondary metabolites and lipids. Chloroplasts require a large number of proteins for these various physiological processes. Over 95% of chloroplast proteins are nucleus-encoded and imported into chloroplasts from the cytosol after translation on cytosolic ribosomes. Thus, the proper import or targeting of these nucleus-encoded chloroplast proteins to chloroplasts is essential for the proper functioning of chloroplasts as well as the plant cell. Nucleus-encoded chloroplast proteins contain signal sequences for specific targeting to chloroplasts. Molecular machinery localized to the chloroplast or cytosol recognize these signals and carry out the import process. To investigate the mechanisms of protein import or targeting to chloroplasts in vivo, we developed a rapid, efficient protoplast-based method to analyze protein import into chloroplasts of Arabidopsis. In this method, we use protoplasts isolated from leaf tissues of Arabidopsis. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for using protoplasts to investigate the mechanism by which proteins are imported into chloroplasts.

Here we describe a protocol to express proteins into protoplasts by using PEG-mediated transformation method. The method provides easy expression of proteins of interest, and efficient investigation of protein localization and the import process for various experimental conditions in vivo.

The chloroplast is an essential organelle that is responsible for various cellular processes in plants, such as photosynthesis and the production of many ...

Measuring and Interpreting Oxygen Consumption Rates in Whole Fly Head Segments

Regulated metabolic activity is essential for the normal functioning of living cells. Indeed, altered metabolic activity is causally linked with the progression of cancer, diabetes, neurodegeneration, and aging to name a few. For instance, changes in mitochondrial activity, the cell&#39;s metabolic powerhouse, have been characterized in many such diseases. Generally, the oxygen consumption rates of mitochondria were considered a reliable readout of mitochondrial activity and measurements in some of these studies were based on isolated mitochondria or cells. However, such conditions may not represent the complexity of a whole tissue. Recently, we have developed a novel method that enables the dynamic measurement of oxygen consumption rates from whole isolated fly heads. By utilizing this method, we have recorded lower oxygen consumption rates of the whole head segment in young versus aged flies. Secondly, we have discovered that lysine deacetylase inhibitors rapidly alter the oxygen consumption in the whole head. Our novel technique may therefore aid in uncovering new properties of various drugs, which may impact metabolic rates. Furthermore, our method may give a better understanding of metabolic behavior in an experimental setup that more closely resembles physiological states.

Measuring alterations in metabolic rates is central to understanding the progression of various diseases and aging. Here, we present a novel technique to measure whole head oxygen consumption that more closely resembles the physiological state and may aid in revealing novel drugs that modify mitochondrial activity.

Regulated metabolic activity is essential for the normal functioning of living cells. Indeed, altered metabolic activity is causally linked with the ...

Proteomic Analysis of Human Macrophage Polarization Under a Low Oxygen Environment

Macrophages are innate immune cells involved in a number of physiological functions ranging from responses to infectious pathogens to tissue homeostasis. The various functions of these cells are related to their activation states, which is also called polarization. The precise molecular description of these various polarizations is a priority in the field of macrophage biology. It is currently acknowledged that a multidimensional approach is necessary to describe how polarization is controlled by environmental signals. In this report, we describe a protocol designed to obtain the proteomic signature of various polarizations in human macrophages. This protocol is based on a label-free quantification of macrophage protein expression obtained from in-gel fractionated and Lys C/trypsin-digested cellular lysis content. We also provide a protocol based on in-solution digestion and isoelectric focusing fractionation to use as an alternative. Because oxygen concentration is a relevant environmental parameter in tissues, we use this protocol to explore how atmospheric composition or a low oxygen environment affects the classification of macrophage polarization.

We present a protocol to obtain proteomic signatures of human macrophages and apply this to determination of the impact of a low oxygen environment on macrophage polarization.

Macrophages are innate immune cells involved in a number of physiological functions ranging from responses to infectious pathogens to tissue homeostasis. ...

Analysis of Protein Folding, Transport, and Degradation in Living Cells by Radioactive Pulse Chase

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and the degradation of target proteins in live cells. By using short (pulse) radiolabeling times (&lt;30 min) and tightly controlled chase times, it is possible to label only a small fraction of the total protein pool and follow its folding. When combined with nonreducing/reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoprecipitation with (conformation-specific) antibodies, folding processes can be examined in great detail. This system has been used to analyze the folding of proteins with a huge variation in properties such as soluble proteins, single and multi-pass transmembrane proteins, heavily N- and O-glycosylated proteins, and proteins with and without extensive disulfide bonding. Pulse-chase methods are the basis of kinetic studies into a range of additional features, including co- and posttranslational modifications, oligomerization, and polymerization, essentially allowing the analysis of a protein from birth to death. Pulse-chase studies on protein folding are complementary with other biochemical and biophysical methods for studying proteins in vitro by providing increased temporal resolution and physiological information. The methods as described within this paper are adapted easily to study the folding of almost any protein that can be expressed in mammalian or insect-cell systems.

Here we describe a protocol for a general pulse-chase method that allows the kinetic analysis of folding, transport, and degradation of proteins to be followed in live cells.

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and ...