We thank the UIC Biorespository members, Dr. Klara Valyi-Nagy, and Alex Susma, as well as the urologists, Drs. Michael Abern, Daniel Moreira, and Simone Crivallero, for facilitation of tissue acquisition for the primary cell cultures. We thank the UIC Urology patients for donating their tissue to research. This work was funded, in part, by the Department of Defense Prostate Cancer Research Program Health Disparities Idea Award PC121923 (Nonn) and the UIC Center for Clinical and Translation Science Pre-doctoral Education for Clinical and Translational Scientists (PECTS) Program (McCray and Richards) and by the National Institutes of Health&#39;s National Cancer Institute, Grant Numbers U54CA202995, U54CA202997, and U54CA203000, known as the Chicago Health Equity Collaborative (Nonn and Richards). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health or the Department of Defense.

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Organotypic culture is an exciting new method for recapitulating tissue with the convenience of an in vitro environment. Currently, labs grow organoids from many types of tissues for various endpoints. The methods described in this paper summarize useful endpoints and highlight new techniques to fully characterize 3D primary prostate cell cultures.
There are a variety of media recipes for cultivating human primary prostate cell organoids5,6,13. While all achieve viable and comparable results, KSFM-based media13 uses minimal additives so it is described here. Additionally, papers have been published using multiple concentrations for matrix gel, from 10% to 75% to culture prostate organoids5,6,13. Because matrix gel is an expensive reagent, and 33% matrix gel has been shown to be sufficient to cultivate long-term (2-3 weeks), viable, unclumped organoids13, this is the recommended concentration. However, matrix gel can vary in protein concentration between lot numbers, so this should be taken into account when plating. It is also recommended to purchase matrix gel in bulk for use across multiple experiments to reduce inconsistency between lots. Other labs have published different formats for plating matrix gel, such as droplets instead of coating a 96-well plate well5. Both methods form viable organoids, but the format described here allows for cells to be plated more sparsely, which has been shown to promote expansion of cells into larger organoids13. However, plating density should be optimized based off patient-specific formation efficiency. Matrix gel is available in many formats including growth factor-reduced, phenol red-free, high concentration, etc. Growth factor-reduced is recommended for defined culture conditions, and phenol red-free is recommended when working with cells that express GFP or in experiments that involve z-stack image capture. It is critical that any matrix gel plating steps be performed with ice-cold reagents, as matrix gel solidifies quickly at room temperature.
Organoids grown under different experimental treatments may result in changes to shape, so bright-field imaging is widely used to study observed morphological phenotypes. Nevertheless, recording and quantifying area or shape is a challenge for two reasons: 1) selection bias during image capture and 2) applying a two-dimensional parameter such as area to a three-dimensional sample. One strategy of image capture is to record a random field and measure a predetermined number of organoids in that field, but this can create bias during selection, and all organoids in the selected field may not be in focus. Whole-well imaging optimized for the 96-well microplate format eliminates this sampling bias by collecting the entire organoid population of interest. However, depending on the microscope objectives on hand, multiple fields may need to be collected and tiled in order to obtain a whole-well image. Some labs have described measuring area from a single z-plane12, but to capture all organoids in focus, it is recommended to collect and stack multiple planes into a single EDF-image13. In some cases, a meniscus in the matrix gel may cause vignetting in the image, and background correction methods may need to be applied using image analysis software. Exact volume is ideally the most appropriate measurement for organoid size; however, this is difficult to precisely obtain, even with multiple z-stack images. Other useful morphological dimensions, such as circularity and maximum/minimum ratio, can easily be calculated from all the organoids in a whole-well EDF image. Together, these methods overcome sampling bias challenges and enable measurement of 2D parameters from 3D objects in a 3D space.
Formalin fixation and paraffin embedding of organoids is a common method to obtain hematoxylin and eosin (H&#38;E), immunohistochemical (IHC), and immunofluorescent (IF) staining for visualization and analysis6,11,20. However, publications that have described this technique lack comprehensive details on the embedding process. Additionally, locating organoids within the paraffin block can be challenging. Some labs pre-stain organoids with trypan blue prior to embedding to aid in location during sectioning11. The method described here incorporates the use of a histological dye for orientation of the organoid/histology gelplug during embedding to promote efficiency of sectioning. H&#38;E slides facilitate examination of necrosis, nuclear texture, and proliferation, and thus it should be a mandatory endpoint for organoid culture to ensure that cells are healthy throughout the sphere. A strength of organoid culture is that samples are comprised of a heterogeneous mixture of cells that better resemble in vivo patient tissue. In the prostate, for example, both basal and luminal cells are present in prostate organoids5, while cells grown in 2D lack luminal differentiation8. To assess organoid differentiation, it is recommended that researchers assess basal markers such as CK5 and p63 and luminal markers such as androgen receptors and CK88. Any other experimental proteins of interest can also be studied using these staining techniques.
Although FFPE sections allow visualization of cells residing in the inner compartment via histologic methods (H&#38;E, IF, IHC), images are limited to cross sections, and organoid shape may be altered by the embedding process. Whole-mount staining enables an organoid to be stained and observed in situ, preserving morphological phenotypes and permitting images of protein localization. Whole-mounting is a tool utilized to stain whole-tissue or whole-animal specimens, such as the zebrafish or mouse embryo, and is easily adapted for organoids. The technique described here was modified from the procedure by Mah&#233;et al.11, which details the initial growth and culture of gastrointestinal organoids directly on a chamber slide for staining, and requires fixation of the entire parent culture. The method outlined here involves the transfer of a single organoid (or organoids) of interest onto a chamber slide at the time of staining. This enables the selection of individual organoids for whole-mount analysis in an ongoing experiment without fixation of the parent culture. When performing whole-mount staining, it is necessary to optimize permeabilization and the incubation time for primary and secondary antibodies to ensure penetration throughout the specimen (anywhere from one or more days is recommended). Once imaged via confocal microscopy, 3D renderings can be produced to enable visualization and localization of a specific protein and calculate the number of positively stained cells present in a sample. Flow cytometry is a useful endpoint to quantify populations of basal, luminal, or stem cells5,14. To do this, cells are recovered from the matrix gel and gently dissociated for staining. Users should carefully select appropriate markers for separation based on the current literature. For human primary prostate epithelial cells, CD26 and CD49f are suitable luminal and basal markers, respectively5,21.
In summary, this protocol details human primary prostate organoid growth, collection, and experimental endpoints. Of note, the mounting technique described can be applied to a variety of other assays that are normally employed for 2D cells, such as fluorescent probe-based experiments looking at proliferation19, apoptosis, and subcellular organelle stains. Additionally, the collection and dissociation method described here could be utilized in preparation for single-cell RNA sequencing18. Collectively, this demonstrates the possibility for a variety of novel, high-fidelity endpoints that researchers can optimize and explore in the future.

Organoids are a valuable tool to study organogenesis and disease. They provide a less expensive alternative to animal models, and patient-derived organoids are evolving as a strategy for personalized medicine1,2,3. This three-dimensional (3D) culture system involves seeding stem or progenitor cells (harvested from tissue or induced pluripotent stem cells) into a gel of extracellular matrix components (matrix gel)4. The cells proliferate and differentiate, resulting in organotypic structures that recapitulate the cellular hierarchy and morphology of the organ of interest&#39;s functional unit. Organoids have been grown using cells originating from a variety of organs, including the salivary gland, stomach, intestine, liver, prostate, lung, and brain4. Although there are numerous protocols describing steps to establish prostate organoids5,6, it is challenging to find sufficiently detailed methods on how to achieve quantitative endpoints from organoids. This paper summarizes methods developed for human primary prostate cells and details a series of suggested endpoints to assess the organoid phenotypes. These techniques were optimized for prostate organoids and may be applicable to other 3D cell cultures.
Prostate organoid cultures have recently emerged as a valuable in vitro model that lacks the limitations of monolayer cultures using established immortalized cell lines. Benign prostate epithelium and prostate cancer is challenging to model in vitro using immortalized cell lines. The number of benign cell lines is limited, and all have undergone transformation with oncogenes7. Primary prostate epithelial cells in monolayers do not differentiate into luminal cells and lack androgen receptors8. The majority of prostate cancer cell lines do not have functional androgen receptors, a significant mediator of early disease state, and lack key genetic changes that have been found in patient tumors9. Prostate organoid cultures can be grown easily from benign epithelium and are valuable in studying stem cell properties, progenitor cells, differentiation, and effects of experimental changes in the microenvironment4,5. Prostate cancer organoids can be grown as part of a precision medicine approach to modeling patient disease and response to therapies10.
This protocol has been compiled from existing protocols that use various cell types, but it has been optimized here for use in human primary prostate cells. It compliments protocols outlined by Sawyers, Clevers, and Shen5,6 that describe growth, passaging, bright-field imaging, cryopreservation, and RNA and DNA isolation of prostate mouse and human organoids. The whole-mount protocol is modified from Mah&#233;&#160;et al.11, who used gastrointestinal epithelial organoids and describes live imaging and frozen and paraffin embedding. Borten et al.12 described the analysis of breast, colon, and colorectal cancer organoid morphology from bright-field imaging. Additionally, Richards et al.13 used a method for the morphologic assessment of prostate organoids. Finally, Hu et al.14 described a method of adhering prostate organoids to a chamber slide overnight prior to the immunofluorescent staining to observe single cells and dispersion of spheres for flow cytometry analysis.
The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate in sufficient detail these technically challenging methods as one protocol, including cell seeding; media and matrix gel maintenance; collection of cells for flow cytometry; RNA, DNA, and protein extraction; morphologic assessment from bright-field z-stack analysis; embedding, processing and sectioning for histological staining; and whole-mounting for immunofluorescence or fluorescent probe assays. The biological relevance and interpretation of these various endpoints will vary among experimental design and antibodies used for analysis. Through utilization of this protocol, users should feel prepared to set up an experiment with a toolkit of endpoints.
Human primary prostate epithelial (PrE) cells were established in the lab by the protocol described by Peehl15,16 and maintained to a limited number of passages (up to four) as previously described17, but they are also available from commercial vendors. Hepatocyte serum-free media-based6, KSFM-based13, and R-spondin 1-conditioned5 media are all published as having successfully produced organoids. KSFM-based requires the fewest number of additives, so it is described here.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Cells of interest</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keratinocyte-SFM (KSFM)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>17005042</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum, charcoal stripped, USDA-approved regions (FBS)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12676029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5&#945;-Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D-073-1ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flat bottom, polystyrene 96-well cell culture treated plate</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>161093</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matrigel (matrix gel)</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td>Matrix-gel: growth Factor Reduced, Phenol-red free, etc. depending on application</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice Bucket</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Culture Hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL micro-centrifuge tubes or 15 mL conical</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-408-130, 339650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispase (neutral protease)</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>7923</td>
			<td>neutral protease</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hanks&#39;&#160;balanced salt solution&#160;(HBSS)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14025076</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TrypLE Express (cell dissociation enzymes)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12605036</td>
			<td>Cell dissociation enzymes (trypsin may also work, depending on cell type, but TrypLE is more gentle and recommended for primary cells)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIzol</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15596018</td>
			<td>suggested RNA extraction solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RIPA Lysis and Extraction Buffer</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>89900</td>
			<td>suggested protein extraction solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAzol</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10503027</td>
			<td>suggested DNA extraction solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Organoids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flat bottom, polystyrene 96-well cell culture treated plate</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>161093</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brightfield microscope with camera capabilities</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>ex. &#8206;EVOS FL Auto Imaging System</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photo analysis software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>ex. Photoshop, CELLESTE, ImageJ, MorphoLibJ, CellProfiler</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphing software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>ex. Graphpad, Excel, etc</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Organoids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice pack</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Masking tape</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette tips (1000 &#956;L)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blade</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispase</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>7923</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HistoGel (histology-gel)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>HG-4000-012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pencil</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#34;Plunger&#34; from 1 cc insulin syringe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Casette</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1202D72</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Container to hold fixative</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% neutral buffered formalin (NBF)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>HT501128</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Histology pen, xylene and EtOH-resistant</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z648191-12EA</td>
			<td>STATMARK pen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol (histologic grade)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A405P-4</td>
			<td>For fixation and graded dilutions during processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylenes</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>214736-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraffin</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>various</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue processor</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Embedding workstation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Economy Tissue Float Bath</td>
			<td>Daigger</td>
			<td>EF4575E XH-1001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome blades</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>27243</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Positively charged microscope slides</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1158B91</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laboratory Oven</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>PR305225G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin and Eosin Stain Kit</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>H-3502</td>
			<td>Suggested H&#38;E staining kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ABC Peroxidase Standard Staining Kit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>32020</td>
			<td>Suggested immunohistochemistry staining kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Androgen Receptor Primary Antibody (AR)</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology</td>
			<td>5153S</td>
			<td>Suggested primary antibody for IHC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FFPE, sectioned organoid sample baked on a slide</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol (histologic grade)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A405P-4</td>
			<td>dilutions should be performed using deinoized water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylenes</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>214736-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water (DI H2O)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antigen retrieval solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, Abcam</td>
			<td>C9999, ab93684</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1x Phosphate Buffered Saline - PBS</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal Horse Serum</td>
			<td>thermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>31874</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovin Serum Albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Counterstain (DAPI, Hoescht)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D9542</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium azide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td>suggested for storage but not required</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coplin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>19-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Staining rack</td>
			<td>IHC World</td>
			<td>M905-12DGY</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Staining dish</td>
			<td>IHC World</td>
			<td>M900-12B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Decloaking chamber</td>
			<td>Biocare Medical</td>
			<td>DC2012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Humidity chamber</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1219D68</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrophobic barrier pen</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>H-4000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytokeratin 8/18 primary antibody (CK8)</td>
			<td>ARP American Research Products</td>
			<td>03-GP11</td>
			<td>suggested primary antibody for IF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p63-alpha antibody (p63)</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology</td>
			<td>4892S</td>
			<td>suggested primary antibody for IF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keratin 5 Polyclonal Antibody (CK5)</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>905501</td>
			<td>suggested primary antibody for IF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-rabbit secondary</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A21245</td>
			<td>suggested secondary antibody for p63 or CK5 detection (do not use at same time)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-guinea pig secondary</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A-11075</td>
			<td>suggested secondary antibody for CK8 detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope cover glass</td>
			<td>Globe Scientific</td>
			<td>1414-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-fade mounting media</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S36972</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Organoids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette tips (1000 &#956;L)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette tips (200 &#956;L)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8-well chamber slide</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>154534PK</td>
			<td>It is also possible to use a confocal dish, depends on preference of user</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell-Tak</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>CB40240</td>
			<td>optional adherent reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1x Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4% paraformaldehye (PFA)</td>
			<td>Biotium</td>
			<td>22023</td>
			<td>other fixatives such as methanol or formalin can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50mM NH4Cl</td>
			<td>sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>254134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton&#8482; X-100 (non-ionic detergent)</td>
			<td>sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal Horse Serum (NHS)</td>
			<td>thermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>31874</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovin Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Counterstain (DAPI, Hoescht)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D9542</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Counterstain (phalloidin)</td>
			<td>thermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A22287</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium azide</td>
			<td>sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td>suggested for storage but not required</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytokeratin 8/18 primary antibody (CK8)</td>
			<td>ARP American Research Products</td>
			<td>03-GP11</td>
			<td>suggested primary antibody for IF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p63-alpha antibody (p63)</td>
			<td>Cell Signaling Technology</td>
			<td>4892S</td>
			<td>suggested primary antibody for IF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Keratin 5 Polyclonal Antibody (CK5)</td>
			<td>Biolegend</td>
			<td>905501</td>
			<td>suggested primary antibody for IF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-rabbit secondary</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A21245</td>
			<td>suggested secondary antibody for p63 or CK5 detection (do not use at same time)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-guinea pig secondary</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A-11075</td>
			<td>suggested secondary antibody for CK8 detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Visikol HISTO-M</td>
			<td>Visikol</td>
			<td>various</td>
			<td>optional clearing agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Organoids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette tips (1000 &#956;L)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette tips (200 &#956;L)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>8-well chamber slide</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>154534PK</td>
			<td>It is also possible to use a confocal dish, depends on preference of user</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell-Tak</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>CB40240</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1x Phosphate Buffered Saline - PBS</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell assay of interest</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td>Click-iT EdU Alexa Fluor proliferation assay (fluorescently-labelled EdU proliferation kit), Image-iT Lipid Peroxidation Kit, etc) and fluorescent probes/dyes (ex. HCS mitochondrial Health Kit, CellMask, LIVE/DEAD Viability assays, CellROX reagents, etc)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Organoids</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice bucket</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL eppendorf tubes or 15 mL conical</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispase</td>
			<td>STEMCELL Technologies</td>
			<td>7923</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TrypLE Express (cell dissociation enzymes)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12605036</td>
			<td>Cell dissociation enzymes (trypsin may also work, depending on cell type, but TrypLE is more gentle and recommended for primary cells)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hanks&#39;&#160;balanced salt solution&#160;(HBSS)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14175079</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flow Tube with Cell Strainer Snap Cap</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-771-23</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytokeratin 5 Antibody - FITC</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>FCMAB291F</td>
			<td>Suggested flow antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytokeratin 8 Antibody - Alexafluor 405</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab210139</td>
			<td>Suggested flow antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD49f - Alexafluor 647</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>313609</td>
			<td>Suggested flow antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD26 - PE</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>320576</td>
			<td>Suggested flow antibody</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

handling and assessment of human primary prostate organoid culture

This paper describes a detailed protocol for three-dimensional (3D) culturing, handling, and evaluation of human primary prostate organoids. The process involves seeding of epithelial cells sparsely in a 3D matrix gel on a 96-well microplate with media changes to cultivate expansion into organoids. Morphology is then assessed by whole-well capturing of z-stack images. Compression of z-stacks creates a single in-focus image from which organoids are measured to quantify a variety of outputs, including circularity, roundness, and area.DNA, RNA, and protein can be collected from organoids recovered from the matrix gel. Cell populations of interest can be assessed by organoid dissociation and flow cytometry. Formalin-fixation-paraffin-embedding (FFPE) followed by sectioning is used for the histological assessment and antibody staining. Whole-mount immunofluorescent staining preserves organoid morphology and facilitates observation of protein localization in organoids in situ. Commercial assays that are traditionally used for 2D monolayer cells can be modified for 3D organoids. Used together, the techniques in this protocol provide a robust toolbox to quantify prostate organoid growth, morphologic characteristics, and expression of differentiation markers.

Upon successful culture of human primary prostate organoids, morphology and differentiation can be assessed using bright-field image analysis and FFPE and whole-mount staining techniques.
The process of bright-field image capture is illustrated in Figure 1A. Organoids are grown in a 3D matrix and dispersed across different focal planes. To observe organoids in focus across many planes, it is suggested to use an EDF image (Figure 1B, right) instead of a single z-plane (Figure 1B, left). In the lab, organoids grown under different experimental conditions may result in changes in morphology. Using area, circularity (defined by how similar the organoid is to a circle) and max/min radius (measure of length) give users an indication of organoid size and shape and provide a quantifiable readout of morphology. To emphasize the usefulness of these measures, representative images of organoids with similar area but differing morphology are shown in Figure 1C, in which a long organoid will be less circular and have a larger maximum/minimum ratio than a spherical organoid.
Embedding organoids for histology is a useful endpoint to observe the interior of samples and ensure that necrosis is not present within the core of an organoid. A workflow for this process and representative results of the unstained, sectioned samples under a bright-field microscope are provided in Figure 2A,B,C. Figure 3A shows a mishandled organoid (left) compared to properly handed organoids in Figure 3A (right) and Figure 3B. To determine the differentiation-state of the sample, it is recommended to look at basal cell markers (cytokeratin 5 and p63)8 along with luminal cell markers (cytokeratin 8)8. If it is desired to stain organoids in situ, whole-mount staining is a convenient alternative, and these representative results are provided in Figure 3C,D. 
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59051/59051fig1v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Morphology assessment of organoids in 3D culture. (A) Image collection and compression workflow for human primary prostate organoids acquired by a transmitted light inverted microscope with a motorized X/Y scanning stage and companion software. (B) Representative images of a single z-stack (left) vs. an EDF image (right) of a whole-well sample of human primary prostate organoids, showing that more organoids are in focus when multiple z-stacks are combined into a single projected image (scale bar = 1000 &#181;m). (C) Representative images for area, circularity, and max/min ratio of morphologically dissimilar human primary prostate organoids which have the same area (scale bar = 200 &#181;m). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59051/59051fig1v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59051/59051fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Organoid embedding workflow and representative sectioning results. (A) Human primary prostate organoid embedding workflow. (B) Representative image of an unstained, fresh slide containing human primary prostate organoids under a bright field microscope depicting agar (green arrow), histology gel (black arrow), bubble (blue arrow), organoids (red arrows) (scale bar = 1000 &#181;m). (C) Unstained freshly cut slide (left) vs. unstained dry slide (right), organoids (red arrows) appear translucent when dry (scale bar = 500 &#181;m) and are harder to discern under a bright-field microscope. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59051/59051fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59051/59051fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Histological staining on sectioned and whole-mounted organoids. (A) H&#38;E staining of a broken human primary prostate organoid from mishandling (aggressive pipetting, wrong processing protocol, left) next to a well-handled organoid (right) (scale bar = 100 &#181;m). (B) Human primary prostate organoid that has been formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, sectioned, and stained with basal cytokeratin 5 or luminal cytokeratin 8 (top) or basal p63 and luminal cytokeratin 8 (bottom) and imaged with confocal microscope (scale bar = 100 &#181;m). (C) A whole-mounted human primary prostate organoid stained with basal cytokeratin 5 or luminal cytokeratin 8 and counterstained with phalloidin and DAPI, imaged with confocal microscope (scale bar = 100 &#181;m). (D) A whole-mounted human primary prostate cell organoid stained with fluorescently labeled EdU and counter stained with Hoescht, imaged with confocal microscope (scale bar = 500 &#181;m) <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59051/59051fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Handling and Assessment of Human Primary Prostate Organoid Culture at JoVE.com

Handling and Assessment of Human Primary Prostate Organoid Culture

Here, we present a protocol to guide human primary prostate organoid handling then suggest endpoints to assess phenotype. Seeding, culture maintenance, recovery from matrix gel, morphologic quantification, embedding and sectioning, FFPE sectioning, whole-mount staining, and application of commercial assays are described.

This paper describes a detailed protocol for three-dimensional (3D) culturing, handling, and evaluation of human primary prostate organoids. The process ...

handling-and-assessment-of-human-primary-prostate-organoid-culture

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Bioengineering

16.9K Views.  University of Illinois at Chicago. Here, we present a protocol to guide human primary prostate organoid handling then suggest endpoints to assess phenotype. Seeding, culture maintenance, recovery from matrix gel, morphologic quantification, embedding and sectioning, FFPE sectioning, whole-mount staining, and application of commercial assays are described.

Video: Handling and Assessment of Human Primary Prostate Organoid Culture

Rotating Cell Culture Systems for Human Cell Culture: Human Trophoblast Cells as a Model

The field of human trophoblast research aids in understanding the complex environment established during placentation. Due to the nature of these studies, human in vivo experimentation is impossible. A combination of primary cultures, explant cultures and trophoblast cell lines1 support our understanding of invasion of the uterine wall2 and remodeling of uterine spiral arteries3,4 by extravillous trophoblast cells (EVTs), which is required for successful establishment of pregnancy. Despite the wealth of knowledge gleaned from such models, it is accepted that in vitro cell culture models using EVT-like cell lines display altered cellular properties when compared to their in vivo counterparts5,6. Cells cultured in the rotating cell culture system (RCCS) display morphological, phenotypic, and functional properties of EVT-like cell lines that more closely mimic differentiating in utero EVTs, with increased expression of genes mediating invasion (e.g. matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)) and trophoblast differentiation7,8,9. The Saint Georges Hospital Placental cell Line-4 (SGHPL-4) (kindly donated by Dr. Guy Whitley and Dr. Judith Cartwright) is an EVT-like cell line that was used for testing in the RCCS.
The design of the RCCS culture vessel is based on the principle that organs and tissues function in a three-dimensional (3-D) environment. Due to the dynamic culture conditions in the vessel, including conditions of physiologically relevant shear, cells grown in three dimensions form aggregates based on natural cellular affinities and differentiate into organotypic tissue-like assemblies10,11,12 . The maintenance of a fluid orbit provides a low-shear, low-turbulence environment similar to conditions found in vivo. Sedimentation of the cultured cells is countered by adjusting the rotation speed of the RCCS to ensure a constant free-fall of cells. Gas exchange occurs through a permeable hydrophobic membrane located on the back of the bioreactor. Like their parental tissue in vivo, RCCS-grown cells are able to respond to chemical and molecular gradients in three dimensions (i.e. at their apical, basal, and lateral surfaces) because they are cultured on the surface of porous microcarrier beads. When grown as two-dimensional monolayers on impermeable surfaces like plastic, cells are deprived of this important communication at their basal surface. Consequently, the spatial constraints imposed by the environment profoundly affect how cells sense and decode signals from the surrounding microenvironment, thus implying an important role for the 3-D milieu13.
We have used the RCCS to engineer biologically meaningful 3-D models of various human epithelial tissues7,14,15,16. Indeed, many previous reports have demonstrated that cells cultured in the RCCS can assume physiologically relevant phenotypes that have not been possible with other models10,17-21. In summary, culture in the RCCS represents an easy, reproducible, high-throughput platform that provides large numbers of differentiated cells that are amenable to a variety of experimental manipulations. 
In the following protocol, using EVTs as an example, we clearly describe the steps required to three-dimensionally culture adherent cells in the RCCS.

Traditional, two dimensional cell culture techniques often result in altered characteristics with respect to differentiation markers, cytokines and growth factors. Three-dimensional cell culture in the rotating cell culture system (RCCS) reestablishes expression of many of these factors as shown here with an extravillous trophoblast cell line.

The field of human trophoblast research aids in  understanding the complex environment established during placentation. Due to the  nature of these ...

Microfluidic Flow Chambers Using Reconstituted Blood to Model Hemostasis and Platelet Transfusion In Vitro

Blood platelets prepared for transfusion gradually lose hemostatic function during storage. Platelet function can be investigated using a variety of (indirect) in vitro experiments, but none of these is as comprehensive as microfluidic flow chambers. In this protocol, the reconstitution of thrombocytopenic fresh blood with stored blood bank platelets is used to simulate platelet transfusion. Next, the reconstituted sample is perfused in microfluidic flow chambers which mimic hemostasis on exposed subendothelial matrix proteins. Effects of blood donation, transport, component separation, storage and pathogen inactivation can be measured in paired experimental designs. This allows reliable comparison of the impact every manipulation in blood component preparation has on hemostasis. Our results demonstrate the impact of temperature cycling, shear rates, platelet concentration and storage duration on platelet function. In conclusion, this protocol analyzes the function of blood bank platelets and this ultimately aids in optimization of the processing chain including phlebotomy, transport, component preparation, storage and transfusion.

Microfluidic Flow Chambers Using Reconstituted Blood to Model Hemostasis and Platelet Transfusion In Vitro

Platelet transfusion and hemostasis was modeled using blood reconstitution and microfluidic flow chambers to investigate the function of blood banking platelets. The data demonstrate the consequences of platelet storage lesion on hemostasis, in vitro.

Blood platelets prepared for transfusion gradually lose hemostatic function during storage. Platelet function can be investigated using a variety of ...

Automated Robotic Liquid Handling Assembly of Modular DNA Devices

Recent advances in modular DNA assembly techniques have enabled synthetic biologists to test significantly more of the available &#34;design space&#34; represented by &#34;devices&#34; created as combinations of individual genetic components. However, manual assembly of such large numbers of devices is time-intensive, error-prone, and costly. The increasing sophistication and scale of synthetic biology research necessitates an efficient, reproducible way to accommodate large-scale, complex, and high throughput device construction.
Here, a DNA assembly protocol using the Type-IIS restriction endonuclease based Modular Cloning (MoClo) technique is automated on two liquid-handling robotic platforms. Automated liquid-handling robots require careful, often times tedious optimization of pipetting parameters for liquids of different viscosities (e.g. enzymes, DNA, water, buffers), as well as explicit programming to ensure correct aspiration and dispensing of DNA parts and reagents. This makes manual script writing for complex assemblies just as problematic as manual DNA assembly, and necessitates a software tool that can automate script generation. To this end, we have developed a web-based software tool, http://mocloassembly.com, for generating combinatorial DNA device libraries from basic DNA parts uploaded as Genbank files. We provide access to the tool, and an export file from our liquid handler software which includes optimized liquid classes, labware parameters, and deck layout. All DNA parts used are available through Addgene, and their digital maps can be accessed via the Boston University BDC ICE Registry. Together, these elements provide a foundation for other organizations to automate modular cloning experiments and similar protocols.
The automated DNA assembly workflow presented here enables the repeatable, automated, high-throughput production of DNA devices, and reduces the risk of human error arising from repetitive manual pipetting. Sequencing data show the automated DNA assembly reactions generated from this workflow are ~95% correct and require as little as 4% as much hands-on time, compared to manual reaction preparation.

Here, an automated workflow to perform modular DNA &#34;device&#34; assembly using a modular cloning DNA assembly method on liquid-handling robots is presented. The protocol uses an intuitive software tool for generating liquid handler picklists for combinatorial DNA device library generation, which we demonstrate using two liquid handling platforms.

Recent advances in modular DNA assembly techniques have enabled synthetic biologists to test significantly more of the available &#34;design space&#34; ...

Primary Clarification of CHO Harvested Cell Culture Fluid using an Acoustic Separator

Primary clarification is an essential step in a biomanufacturing process for the initial removal of cells from therapeutic products within the harvested cell culture fluid. While traditional methods like centrifugation or filtration are widely implemented for cell removal, the equipment for these processes have large footprints and operation can involve contamination risks and filter fouling. Additionally, traditional methods may not be ideal for continuous bioprocessing schemes for primary clarification. Thus, an alternate application using acoustic (sound) waves was investigated to continuously separate cells from the cell culture fluid. Presented in this study is a detailed protocol for using a bench-scale acoustic wave separator (AWS) for the primary separation of culture fluid containing a monoclonal IgG1 antibody from a CHO cell bioreactor harvest. Representative data are presented from the AWS and demonstrate how to achieve effective cell clarification and product recovery. Finally, potential applications for AWS in continuous bioprocessing are discussed. Overall, this study provides a practical and general protocol for the implementation of AWS in primary clarification for CHO cell cultures and further describes its application potential in continuous bioprocessing.

Presented here is a protocol for the primary clarification of CHO cell culture using an acoustic separator. This protocol can be used for the primary clarification of shake flask cultures or bioreactor harvests and has the potential application for continuous clarification of the cell bleed material during perfusion bioreactor operations.

Primary clarification is an essential step in a biomanufacturing process for the initial removal of cells from therapeutic products within the harvested ...

Isolation and Culture of Primary Human Gingival Epithelial Cells using Y-27632

The gingival tissue is the first structure that protects periodontal tissues and plays meaningful roles in many oral functions. The gingival epithelium is an important structure of gingival tissue, especially in the repair and regeneration of periodontal tissue. Studying the functions of gingival epithelial cells has crucial scientific value, such as repairing oral defects and detecting the compatibility of biomaterials. As human gingival epithelial cells are highly differentiated keratinized cells, their lifespan is short, and they are difficult to passage. So far, there are only two ways to isolate and culture gingival epithelial cells, a direct explant method and an enzymatic method. However, the time required to obtain epithelial cells using the direct explant method is longer, and the cell survival rate of the enzymatic method is lower. Clinically, the acquisition of gingival tissue is limited, so a stable, efficient, and simple in vitro isolation and culture system is needed. We improved the traditional enzymatic method by adding Y-27632, a Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) inhibitor, which can selectively promote the growth of epithelial cells. Our modified enzymatic method simplifies the steps of the traditional enzymatic method and increases the efficiency of culturing epithelial cells, which has significant advantages over the direct explant method and the enzymatic method.

Here we present a modified method for the isolation and culture of human gingival epithelial cells by adding the Rock inhibitor, Y-27632, to the traditional method. This method is easier, less time-consuming, enhances stem cell properties, and produces larger numbers of high-potential epithelial cells both for the laboratory and for clinical applications.

The gingival tissue is the first structure that protects periodontal tissues and plays meaningful roles in many oral functions. The gingival epithelium is ...

Combining Human Organoids and Organ-on-a-Chip Technology to Model Intestinal Region-Specific Functionality

The intestinal mucosa is a complex physical and biochemical barrier that fulfills a myriad of important functions. It enables the transport, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients and xenobiotics while facilitating a symbiotic relationship with microbiota and restricting the invasion of microorganisms. Functional interaction between various cell types and their physical and biochemical environment is vital to establish and maintain intestinal tissue homeostasis. Modeling these complex interactions and integrated intestinal physiology in vitro is a formidable goal with the potential to transform the way new therapeutic targets and drug candidates are discovered and developed.
Organoids and Organ-on-a-Chip technologies have recently been combined to generate human-relevant intestine chips suitable for studying the functional aspects of intestinal physiology and pathophysiology in vitro. Organoids derived from the biopsies of the small (duodenum) and large intestine are seeded into the top compartment of an organ chip and then successfully expand&#160;as monolayers while preserving the distinct cellular, molecular, and functional features of each intestinal region. Human intestine tissue-specific microvascular endothelial cells are incorporated in the bottom compartment of the organ chip to recreate the epithelial-endothelial interface. This novel platform facilitates luminal exposure to nutrients, drugs, and microorganisms, enabling studies of intestinal transport, permeability, and host-microbe interactions.
Here, a detailed protocol is provided for the establishment of intestine chips representing the human duodenum (duodenum chip) and colon (colon chip), and their subsequent culture under continuous flow and peristalsis-like deformations. We demonstrate methods for assessing drug metabolism and CYP3A4 induction in duodenum chip using prototypical inducers and substrates. Lastly, we provide a step-by-step procedure&#160;for the in vitro modeling of interferon gamma (IFN&#947;)-mediated barrier disruption (leaky gut syndrome) in a colon chip, including methods for evaluating the alteration of paracellular permeability, changes in cytokine secretion, and transcriptomic profiling of the cells within the chip.

Biopsy-derived intestinal organoids and organ-on-a-chips technologies are combined into a microphysiological platform to recapitulate region-specific intestinal functionality.

The intestinal mucosa is a complex physical and biochemical barrier that fulfills a myriad of important functions. It enables the transport, absorption, ...

Facilitating Cerebral Organoid Culture via Lateral Soft Light Illumination

At present, cerebral organoid culture technology is still complicated to operate and difficult to apply on a large scale. It is necessary to find a simple and practical solution. Therefore, a more feasible cerebral organoid protocol is proposed in the present study. To solve the unavoidable inconvenience in medium change and organoid transfer in the early stage, the current research optimizes the operation technology by applying the engineering principle. A soft light lamp was adopted to laterally illuminate the embryoid body (EB) samples, allowing the EBs to be seen by the naked eye through the enhanced diffuse reflection effect. Using the principle of secondary flow generated by rotation, the organoids gather toward the center of the well, which facilitates the operation of medium change or organoid transfer. Compared to the dispersed cell, the embryoid body settles faster in the pipette. Using this phenomenon, most of the free cells and dead cell fragments can be effectively removed in a simple way, preventing EBs from incurring damage from centrifugation. This study facilitates the operation of cerebral organoid culture and helps to promote the application of brain organoids.

Facilitating Cerebral Organoid Culture via Lateral Soft Light Illumination

Cerebral organoids provide unprecedented opportunities for studying organ development and human disease pathology. Although great success has been achieved with cerebral organoid culture systems, there are still operational difficulties in applying this technology. The present protocol describes a cerebral organoid procedure that facilitates medium change and organoid transfer.

At present, cerebral organoid culture technology is still complicated to operate and difficult to apply on a large scale. It is necessary to find a simple ...

Reconstituting Cytoarchitecture and Function of Human Epithelial Tissues on an Open-Top Organ-Chip

Nearly all human organs are lined with epithelial tissues, comprising one or multiple layers of tightly connected cells organized into three-dimensional (3D) structures. One of the main functions of epithelia is the formation of barriers that protect the underlining tissues against physical and chemical insults and infectious agents. In addition, epithelia mediate the transport of nutrients, hormones, and other signaling molecules, often creating biochemical gradients that guide cell positioning and compartmentalization within the organ. Owing to their central role in determining organ-structure and function, epithelia are important therapeutic targets for many human diseases that are not always captured by animal models. Besides the obvious species-to-species differences, conducting research studies on barrier function and transport properties of epithelia in animals is further compounded by the difficulty of accessing these tissues in a living system. While two-dimensional (2D) human cell cultures are useful for answering basic scientific questions, they often yield poor in vivo predictions. To overcome these limitations, in the last decade, a plethora of micro-engineered biomimetic platforms, known as organs-on-a-chip, have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional in vitro and animal testing. Here, we describe an Open-Top Organ-Chip (or Open-Top Chip), a platform designed for modeling organ-specific epithelial tissues, including skin, lungs, and the intestines. This chip offers new opportunities for reconstituting the multicellular architecture and function of epithelial tissues, including the capability to recreate a 3D stromal component by incorporating tissue-specific fibroblasts and endothelial cells within a mechanically active system. This Open-Top Chip provides an unprecedented tool for studying epithelial/mesenchymal and vascular interactions at multiple scales of resolution, from single cells to multi-layer tissue constructs, thus allowing molecular dissection of the intercellular crosstalk of epithelialized organs in health and disease.

The present protocol describes the capabilities and the essential culture modalities of the Open-Top Organ-Chip for the successful establishment and maturation of full-thickness organ-on-chip cultures of primary tissues (skin, alveolus, airway, and intestine), providing the opportunity to investigate different functional aspects of the human epithelial/mesenchymal and vascular niche interface in vitro.

Nearly all human organs are lined with epithelial tissues, comprising one or multiple layers of tightly connected cells organized into three-dimensional ...

Matrix Comparison for Efficient Human Intestinal Organoid Generation from iPSCs

Comparative Study of Basement-Membrane Matrices for Human Stem Cell Maintenance and Intestinal Organoid Generation

Extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a critical role in cell behavior and development. Organoids generated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) are in the spotlight of many research areas. However, the lack of physiological cues in classical cell culture materials hinders efficient iPSC differentiation. Incorporating commercially available ECM into stem cell culture provides physical and chemical cues beneficial for cell maintenance. Animal-derived commercially available basement membrane products are composed of ECM proteins and growth factors that support cell maintenance. Since the ECM holds tissue-specific properties that can modulate cell fate, xeno-free matrices are used to stream up translation to clinical studies. While commercially available matrices are widely used in hiPSC and organoid work, the equivalency of these matrices has not been evaluated yet. Here, a comparative study of hiPSC maintenance and human intestinal organoids (hIO) generation in four different matrices: Matrigel (Matrix 1-AB), Geltrex (Matrix 2-AB), Cultrex (Matrix 3-AB), and VitroGel (Matrix 4-XF) was conducted. Although the colonies lacked a perfectly round shape, there was minimal spontaneous differentiation, with over 85% of the cells expressing the stem cell marker SSEA-4. Matrix 4-XF led to the formation of 3D round clumps. Also, increasing the concentration of supplement and growth factors in the media used to make the Matrix 4-XF hydrogel solution improved hiPSC expression of SSEA-4 by 1.3-fold. Differentiation of Matrix 2-AB -maintained hiPSC led to fewer spheroid releases during the mid-/hindgut stage compared to the other animal-derived basement membranes. Compared to others, the xeno-free organoid matrix (Matrix 4-O3) leads to larger and more mature hIO, suggesting that the physical properties of xeno-free hydrogels can be harnessed to optimize organoid generation. Altogether, the results suggest that variations in the composition of different matrices affect stages of IO differentiation. This study raises awareness about the differences in commercially available matrices and provides a guide for matrix optimization during iPSC and IO work.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Organoid Generation for Drug Development Using iPSCs

Organoids have become valuable tools for disease modeling. The extracellular matrix (ECM)&#160;guides cell fate during organoid generation, and using a system that resembles the native tissue can improve model accuracy. This study compares the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells-derived human intestinal organoids in animal-derived ECM and xeno-free hydrogels.

Extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a critical role in cell behavior and development. Organoids generated from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) ...

Three-Step Organoid Model for Tendon Research and Engineering

Demonstration of Self-Assembled Cell Sheet Culture and Manual Generation of a 3D Tendon/Ligament-Like Organoid by using Human Dermal Fibroblasts

Tendons and ligaments (T/L) are strong hierarchically organized structures uniting&#160;the&#160;musculoskeletal system. These tissues have a strictly arranged collagen type&#160;I-rich extracellular matrix (ECM) and T/L-lineage cells mainly positioned in parallel rows. After injury, T/L require a long time for rehabilitation with high failure risk and often unsatisfactory repair outcomes. Despite recent advancements in T/L biology research, one of the remaining challenges is that the T/L field still lacks a standardized differentiation protocol that is able to recapitulate T/L formation process in vitro. For example, bone and fat differentiation of mesenchymal precursor cells require just standard two-dimensional (2D) cell culture and the addition of specific stimulation media. For differentiation to cartilage, three-dimensional (3D) pellet culture and supplementation of TGF&#223; is necessary. However, cell differentiation to tendon needs a very orderly 3D culture model, which ideally should also be subjectable to dynamic mechanical stimulation. We have established a 3-step (expansion, stimulation, and maturation) organoid model to form a 3D rod-like structure out of a self-assembled cell sheet, which delivers a natural microenvironment with its own ECM, autocrine, and paracrine factors. These rod-like organoids have a multi-layered cellular architecture within rich ECM and can be handled quite easily for exposure to static mechanical strain. Here, we demonstrated the 3-step protocol by using commercially available dermal fibroblasts. We could show that this cell type forms robust and ECM-abundant organoids. The described procedure can be further optimized in terms of culture media and optimized toward dynamic axial mechanical stimulation. In the same way, alternative cell sources can be tested for their potential to form T/L organoids and thus undergo T/L differentiation. In sum, the established 3D T/L organoid approach can be used as a model for tendon basic research and even for scaffold-free T/L engineering.

Author Spotlight: Advancing Tendon Tissue Engineering with 3D Organoid Models

Herein, we demonstrate a three-step organoid model (two-dimensional [2D] expansion, 2D stimulation, three-dimensional [3D] maturation) offering a promising tool for tendon fundamental research and a potential scaffold-free method for tendon tissue engineering.

Tendons and ligaments (T/L) are strong hierarchically organized structures uniting&#160;the&#160;musculoskeletal system. These tissues have a strictly ...