We would like to thank Dr. Sam Hanlon, Evelyn Brown, and Margaret Gondo for their excellent technical assistance. This research was supported in part by National Institutes of Health (NIH) R01 EY-018239 and P30 EY007551 (National Eye Institute), in part by the Lion&#39;s Foundation for Sight, and in part by NIH 1R15 HD084262-01 (National Institute of Child Health &#38; Human Development).

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The purpose of this methods paper is to highlight the tissue preparation and imaging methodology that has allowed our lab to reliably capture high-resolution serial electron microscopy images, and to point out critical steps that lead to this outcome as well as potential pitfalls that can occur when conducting SBF-SEM imaging. Success using this protocol requires proper fixation of tissue, impregnation of heavy metals into the sample, modifications of the embedding resin to reduce charging, as well as an understanding of...

Serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) was first described by Leighton in 1981 where he fashioned a scanning electron microscope augmented with an in-built microtome which could cut and image thin sections of tissue embedded in resin. Unfortunately, technical limitations restricted its use to conductive samples, as non-conductive samples such as biological tissue accumulated unacceptable levels of charging (electron buildup within the tissue sample)1. While coating the block-face between cuts with evaporated carbon reduced tissue charging, this greatly increased imaging acquisition time and image storage remained a problem as computer technology at the time was insufficient to manage the large file sizes created by the device. This methodology was revisited by Denk and Horstmann in 2004 using a SBF-SEM equipped with a variable pressure chamber2. This allowed for the introduction of water vapor to the imaging chamber which reduces charging within the sample, making imaging of non-conductive samples viable albeit with a loss of image resolution. Further improvements in tissue preparation and imaging methods now allow for imaging using high vacuum, and SBF-SEM imaging no longer relies on water vapor to dissipate charging3,4,5,6,7,8,9. While SBF-SEM has seen an exponential increase in use in recent years, technical aspects such as proper tissue preparation and imaging parameters are paramount for the success of this imaging modality.
SBF-SEM allows for the automated collection of thousands of serially-registered electron microscopy images, with planar resolution as small as 3-5 nm10,11. Tissue, impregnated with heavy metals and embedded in resin, is placed within a scanning electron microscope (SEM) containing an ultramicrotome fitted with a diamond knife. A flat surface is cut with the diamond knife, the knife is retracted, and the surface of the block is scanned in a raster pattern with an electron beam to create an image of tissue ultrastructure. The block is then raised a specified amount (e.g., 100 nm) in the z-axis, known as a &#34;z-step,&#34; and a new surface is cut before the process is repeated. In this way a 3-dimensional (3D) block of images is produced as the tissue is cut away. This imaging system further benefits from the automated nature of the device, allowing one to leave the microscope unattended during the imaging process, with the automated collection of hundreds of images possible in a single day.
While SBF-SEM imaging primarily uses backscattered electrons to form an image of the block-face, secondary electrons are generated during the imaging process12. Secondary electrons can accumulate, alongside backscattered and primary-beam electrons that do not escape the block, and produce &#34;tissue charging,&#34; which can lead to a localized electrostatic field at the block-face. This electron accumulation can distort the image or cause electrons to be ejected from the block and contribute to the signal collected by the backscatter detector, decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio13. While the level of tissue charging can be decreased by reducing the electron beam voltage or intensity, or reducing beam dwell time, this results in a diminished signal-to-noise ratio14. When an electron beam of lower voltage or intensity is used, or the beam is only allowed to dwell within each pixel space for a shorter period of time, less backscattered electrons are ejected from the tissue and captured by the electron detector resulting in a weaker signal. Denk and Horstmann dealt with this problem by introducing water vapor into the chamber, thereby reducing charge in the chamber and on the block face at the cost of image resolution. With a chamber pressure of 10-100 Pa, a portion of the electron beam is scattered contributing to image noise and a loss of resolution, however this also produces ions in the specimen chamber which neutralizes charge within the sample block2. More recent methods for neutralizing charge within the sample block use focal gas injection of nitrogen over the block-face during imaging, or introducing negative voltage to the SBF-SEM stage to decrease probe-beam-lading energy and increase signal collected6,7,15. Rather than introducing stage bias, chamber pressure or localized nitrogen injection to decrease charge buildup on the block surface, it is also possible to increase the conductivity of the resin by introducing carbon to the resin mix allowing for more aggressive imaging settings16. The following general protocol is an adaptation of the Deerinck et al. protocol published in 2010 and covers modifications to tissue preparation and imaging methodologies we found useful for minimizing tissue charging while maintaining high resolution image acquisition3,17,18,19. While the previously mentioned protocol focused on tissue processing and heavy metal impregnation, this protocol provides insight into the imaging, data analysis, and reconstruction workflow inherent to SBF-SEM studies. In our laboratory, this protocol has been successfully and reproducibly applied to a wide variety of tissues including cornea and anterior segment structures, eyelid, lacrimal and harderian gland, retina and optic nerve, heart, lung and airway, kidney, liver, cremaster muscle, and cerebral cortex/medulla, and in a variety of species including mouse, rat, rabbit, guinea pig, fish, monolayer and stratified cell cultures, pig, non-human primate, as well as human20,21,22,23. While small changes may be worthwhile for specific tissues and applications, this general protocol has proven highly reproducible and useful in the context of our core imaging facility.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1/16 x 3/8 Aluminum Rivets</td>
			<td>Industrial Rivet &#38; Fastener Co.</td>
			<td>6N37RFLAP/1100</td>
			<td>Used as specimen pins.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2.5mm Flathead Screwdriver</td>
			<td>Wiha Quality Tools</td>
			<td>27225</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>RT 10000</td>
			<td>Used to dilute silver paint.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aspartic Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A8949</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>FisherScientific</td>
			<td>C79-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conductive Silver Paint</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>16062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Denton Desk-II Vacuum Sputtering Device equipped with standard gold foil target</td>
			<td>Denton Vacuum</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This is the gold-sputtering device used by the authors, alternates are acceptable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-edged Razors</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50-949-411</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Embed 812</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>14120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gatan 3View2 mounted in a Tescan Mira3 Field emission SEM</td>
			<td>Gatan &#38; Tescan</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This is the SBF-SEM device used by the authors, alternates are acceptable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Shell Vials, 0.5 DRAM (1.8 ml)</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>72630-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gluteraldehyde</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>16320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gorilla Super Glue - Impact Tough</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Refered to as cyanoacrylate glue in text.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketjen Black</td>
			<td>HM Royal</td>
			<td>EC-600JD</td>
			<td>Refered to as carbon black in text.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KOH</td>
			<td>FisherScientific</td>
			<td>18-605-593</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lead Nitrate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>L62-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microwave</td>
			<td>Pelco</td>
			<td>BioWave Pro</td>
			<td>This is the microwave used by the authors, alternates are acceptable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Osmium Tetroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>201030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Ferrocyanide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9387</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone Embedding Mold</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>10504</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Cacodylate Trihydrate</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>12300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Samco Transfer Pipette</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>202</td>
			<td>Used to make specimen pin storage tubes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Swiss Pattern Needle Files</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>62115</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thiocarbohydrazide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>223220</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Uranyl Acetate</td>
			<td>Polysciences, Inc.</td>
			<td>21447-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reconstruction Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amira Software</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Used to create the reconstructions found in figures 5-7 and 9.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fiji (Fiji is Just ImageJ)</td>
			<td>ImageJ.net</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>TrakEM2 can be added to Fiji to asist in manual segmentation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscopy Image Browser (MIB)</td>
			<td>University of Helsinki, Institute of Biotechnology</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reconstuct Software</td>
			<td>Neural Systems Lab</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SuRVoS Workbench</td>
			<td>Diamond Light Source &#38; The University of Nottingham</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SyGlass</td>
			<td>IstoVisio, Inc.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Allows for reconstruction in virtual reality and histogram-based reconstruction methods.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (sbf-sem) of biological tissue samples

Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) allows for the collection of hundreds to thousands of serially-registered ultrastructural images, offering an unprecedented three-dimensional view of tissue microanatomy. While SBF-SEM has seen an exponential increase in use in recent years, technical aspects such as proper tissue preparation and imaging parameters are paramount for the success of this imaging modality. This imaging system benefits from the automated nature of the device, allowing one to leave the microscope unattended during the imaging process, with the automated collection of hundreds of images possible in a single day. However, without appropriate tissue preparation cellular ultrastructure can be altered in such a way that incorrect or misleading conclusions might be drawn. Additionally, images are generated by scanning the block-face of a resin-embedded biological sample and this often presents challenges and considerations that must be addressed. The accumulation of electrons within the block during imaging, known as "tissue charging," can lead to a loss of contrast and an inability to appreciate cellular structure. Moreover, while increasing electron beam intensity/voltage or decreasing beam-scanning speed can increase image resolution, this can also have the unfortunate side effect of damaging the resin block and distorting subsequent images in the imaging series. Here we present a routine protocol for the preparation of biological tissue samples that preserves cellular ultrastructure and diminishes tissue charging. We also provide imaging considerations for the rapid acquisition of high-quality serial-images with minimal damage to the tissue block.

Mouse Cornea 
This protocol has been applied extensively to the mouse cornea. Using SBF-SEM imaging a network of elastin-free microfibril bundles (EFMBs) were shown to be present within the adult mouse cornea. It was previously believed that this network was only present during embryonic and early postnatal development. SBF-SEM revealed an extensive EFMB network throughout the cornea, with individual fibers found to be 100-200 nm in diameter when measured in cross-section. It was also found that thi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy SBF-SEM of Biological Tissue Samples at JoVE.com

Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy SBF-SEM of Biological Tissue Samples

This protocol outlines a routine method for using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM), a powerful 3D imaging technique. Successful application of SBF-SEM hinges on proper fixation and tissue staining techniques, as well as careful consideration of imaging settings. This protocol contains practical considerations for the entirety of this process.

Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy (SBF-SEM) of Biological Tissue Samples

Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) allows for the collection of hundreds to thousands of serially-registered ultrastructural images, ...

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Biology

7.3K Views.  University of Houston. This protocol outlines a routine method for using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM), a powerful 3D imaging technique. Successful application of SBF-SEM hinges on proper fixation and tissue staining techniques, as well as careful consideration of imaging settings. This protocol contains practical considerations for the entirety of this process.

Video: Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy SBF-SEM of Biological Tissue Samples

Fundamental Technical Elements of Freeze-fracture/Freeze-etch in Biological Electron Microscopy

Freeze-fracture/freeze-etch describes a process whereby specimens, typically biological or nanomaterial in nature, are frozen, fractured, and replicated to generate a carbon/platinum &#8220;cast&#8221; intended for examination by transmission electron microscopy. Specimens are subjected to ultrarapid freezing rates, often in the presence of cryoprotective agents to limit ice crystal formation, with subsequent fracturing of the specimen at liquid nitrogen cooled temperatures under high vacuum. The resultant fractured surface is replicated and stabilized by evaporation of carbon and platinum from an angle that confers surface three-dimensional detail to the cast. This technique has proved particularly enlightening for the investigation of cell membranes and their specializations and has contributed considerably to the understanding of cellular form to related cell function. In this report, we survey the instrument requirements and technical protocol for performing freeze-fracture, the associated nomenclature and characteristics of fracture planes, variations on the conventional procedure, and criteria for interpretation of freeze-fracture images. This technique has been widely used for ultrastructural investigation in many areas of cell biology and holds promise as an emerging imaging technique for molecular, nanotechnology, and materials science studies.

Basic techniques and refinements of freeze-fracture processing of biological specimens and nanomaterials for examination by transmission electron microscopy are described. This technique is a preferred method for revealing ultrastructural features and specializations of biological membranes and for obtaining ultrastructural level dimensional and spatial data in materials sciences and nanotechnology products.

Freeze-fracture/freeze-etch describes a process whereby specimens, typically biological or nanomaterial in nature, are frozen, fractured, and replicated ...

Scanning Electron Microscopy of Macerated Tissue to Visualize the Extracellular Matrix

Fibrosis is a component of all forms of heart disease regardless of etiology, and while much progress has been made in the field of cardiac matrix biology, there are still major gaps related to how the matrix is formed, how physiological and pathological remodeling differ, and most importantly how matrix dynamics might be manipulated to promote healing and inhibit fibrosis. There is currently no treatment option for controlling, preventing, or reversing cardiac fibrosis. Part of the reason is likely the sheer complexity of cardiac scar formation, such as occurs after myocardial infarction to immediately replace dead or dying cardiomyocytes. The extracellular matrix itself participates in remodeling by activating resident cells and also by helping to guide infiltrating cells to the defunct lesion. The matrix is also a storage locker of sorts for matricellular proteins that are crucial to normal matrix turnover, as well as fibrotic signaling. The matrix has additionally been demonstrated to play an electromechanical role in cardiac tissue. Most techniques for assessing fibrosis are not qualitative in nature, but rather provide quantitative results that are useful for comparing two groups but that do not provide information related to the underlying matrix structure. Highlighted here is a technique for visualizing cardiac matrix ultrastructure. Scanning electron microscopy of decellularized heart tissue reveals striking differences in structure that might otherwise be missed using traditional quantitative research methods.

Shown here is a method for visualizing extracellular matrix ultrastructure in decellularized cardiac tissues.

Fibrosis is a component of all forms of heart disease regardless of etiology, and while much progress has been made in the field of cardiac matrix ...

Studying the Supramolecular Organization of Photosynthetic Membranes within Freeze-fractured Leaf Tissues by Cryo-scanning Electron Microscopy

Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of freeze-fractured samples allows investigation of biological structures at near native conditions. Here, we describe a technique for studying the supramolecular organization of photosynthetic (thylakoid) membranes within leaf samples. This is achieved by high-pressure freezing of leaf tissues, freeze-fracturing, double-layer coating and finally cryo-SEM imaging. Use of the double-layer coating method allows acquiring high magnification (&#62;100,000X) images with minimal beam damage to the frozen-hydrated samples as well as minimal charging effects. Using the described procedures we investigated the alterations in supramolecular distribution of photosystem and light-harvesting antenna protein complexes that take place during dehydration of the resurrection plant Craterostigma pumilum, in situ.

Here we describe a procedure for studying freeze-fractured plant tissues. High-pressure frozen leaf samples are freeze-fractured and double-layer coated, yielding well preserved frozen-hydrated samples that are imaged using the cryo-scanning electron microscope at high magnifications with minimal beam damage.

Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of freeze-fractured samples allows investigation of biological structures at near native conditions. Here, we ...

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Protocols for Problematic Plant, Oomycete, and Fungal Samples

Common problems in the processing of biological samples for observations with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) include cell collapse, treatment of samples from wet microenvironments and cell destruction. Using young floral tissues, oomycete cysts, and fungi spores (Agaricales) as examples, specific protocols to process delicate samples are described here that overcome some of the main challenges in sample treatment for image capture under the SEM.
Floral meristems fixed with FAA (Formalin-Acetic-Alcohol) and processed with the Critical Point Dryer (CPD) did not display collapsed cellular walls or distorted organs. These results are crucial for the reconstruction of floral development. A similar CPD-based treatment of samples from wet microenvironments, such as the glutaraldehyde-fixed oomycete cysts, is optimal to test the differential growth of diagnostic characteristics (e.g., the cyst spines) on different types of substrates. Destruction of nurse cells attached to fungi spores was avoided after rehydration, dehydration, and the CPD treatment, an important step for further functional studies of these cells.
The protocols detailed here represent low-cost and rapid alternatives for the acquisition of good-quality images to reconstruct growth processes and to study diagnostic characteristics.

Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM Protocols for Problematic Plant, Oomycete, and Fungal Samples

Problems in the processing of biological samples for scanning electron microscopy observation include cell collapse, treatment of samples from wet microenvironments and cell destruction. Low-cost and relatively rapid protocols suited for preparing challenging samples such as floral meristems, oomycete cysts, and fungi (Agaricales) are compiled and detailed here.

Common problems in the processing of biological samples for observations with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) include cell collapse, treatment of ...

Preparation and Observation of Thick Biological Samples by Scanning Transmission Electron Tomography

This report describes a protocol for preparing thick biological specimens for further observation using a scanning transmission electron microscope. It also describes an imaging method for studying the 3D structure of thick biological specimens by scanning transmission electron tomography. The sample preparation protocol is based on conventional methods in which the sample is fixed using chemical agents, treated with a heavy atom salt contrasting agent, dehydrated in a series of ethanol baths, and embedded in resin. The specific imaging conditions for observing thick samples by scanning transmission electron microscopy are then described. Sections of the sample are observed using a through-focus method involving the collection of several images at various focal planes. This enables the recovery of in-focus information at various heights throughout the sample. This particular collection pattern is performed at each tilt angle during tomography data collection. A single image is then generated, merging the in-focus information from all the different focal planes. A classic tilt-series dataset is then generated. The advantage of the method is that the tilt-series alignment and reconstruction can be performed using standard tools. The collection of through-focal images allows the reconstruction of a 3D volume that contains all of the structural details of the sample in focus.

This report describes a sample preparation protocol and specific imaging conditions for performing scanning transmission electron tomography of thick biological specimens.

This report describes a protocol for preparing thick biological specimens for further observation using a scanning transmission electron microscope. It ...

Biological Sample Preparation by High-pressure Freezing, Microwave-assisted Contrast Enhancement, and Minimal Resin Embedding for Volume Imaging

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the imaging modality in a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM), which is used to obtain stacks of sequential images for 3D reconstruction and modelling. High-pressure freezing (HPF) allows close to native structural preservation, but the subsequent freeze substitution often does not provide sufficient contrast, especially for a bigger specimen, which is needed for high-quality imaging in the SEM required for 3D reconstruction. Therefore, in this protocol, after the freeze substitution, additional contrasting steps are carried out at room temperature. Although these steps are performed in a microwave, it is also possible to follow traditional bench processing, which requires longer incubation times.The subsequent embedding in minimal amounts of resin allows for faster and more precise targeting and preparation inside the FIB-SEM. This protocol is especially useful for samples that require preparation by high-pressure freezing for a reliable ultrastructural preservation but do not gain enough contrast during the freeze substitution for volume imaging using FIB-SEM. In combination with the minimal resin embedding, this protocol provides an efficient workflow for the acquisition of high-quality volume data.

Here we present a protocol for combining two sample processing techniques, high-pressure freezing and microwave-assisted sample processing, followed by minimal resin embedding for acquiring data with a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM). This is demonstrated using a mouse tibial nerve sample and Caenorhabditis elegans.

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the ...

Targeted Studies Using Serial Block Face and Focused Ion Beam Scan Electron Microscopy

This protocol allows for the efficient and effective imaging of cell or tissue samples in three dimensions at the resolution level of electron microscopy. For many years electron microscopy (EM) has remained an inherently two-dimensional technique. With the advent of serial scanning electron microscope imaging techniques (volume EM), using either an integrated microtome or focused ion beam to slice then view embedded tissues, the third dimension becomes easily accessible. Serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) uses an ultramicrotome enclosed in the SEM chamber. It has the capability to handle large specimens (1,000 &#181;m x 1,000 &#181;m) and image large fields of view at small X,Y pixel size, but is limited in the Z dimension by the diamond knife. Focused ion beam SEM (FIB-SEM) is not limited in 3D resolution, (isotropic voxels of &#8804;5 nm are achievable), but the field of view is much more limited. This protocol demonstrates a workflow for combining the two techniques to allow for finding individual regions of interest (ROIs) in a large field and then imaging the subsequent targeted volume at high isotropic voxel resolution. Preparing fixed cells or tissues is more demanding for volume EM techniques due to the extra contrasting needed for efficient signal generation in SEM imaging. Such protocols are time consuming and labor intensive. This protocol also incorporates microwave assisted tissue processing facilitating the penetration of reagents, which reduces the time needed for the processing protocol from days to hours.

Here, we present a protocol for efficiently combining serial block face and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy to target an area of interest. This allows for efficient searching, in three dimensions, and locating rare events in a large field of view.

This protocol allows for the efficient and effective imaging of cell or tissue samples in three dimensions at the resolution level of electron microscopy. ...

Array Tomography Workflow for the Targeted Acquisition of Volume Information using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Electron microscopy is applied in biology and medicine for imaging of cellular and structural details at nanometer resolution. Historically, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) provided insight into cell ultrastructure, but in the recent decade, the development of modern Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) has changed the way of looking inside the cells. Even though the resolution of TEM is superior when protein-level structural details are needed, SEM-resolution is sufficient for the majority of the organelle-level cell biology-related questions. The advancement in technology enabled automatic volume acquisition solutions such as Serial block-face imaging (SBF-SEM) and Focused ion beam SEM (FIB-SEM). Nevertheless, to this day, these methods remain inefficient when the identification and navigation to areas of interest are crucial. Without the means for precise localization of target areas before imaging, operators need to acquire much more data than they need (in SBF-SEM), or, even worse, prepare many grids and image them all (in TEM). We propose the strategy of "lateral screening" using Array Tomography in SEM, which facilitates the localization of areas of interest, followed by automated imaging of the relevant fraction of the total sample volume. Array tomography samples are conserved during imaging, and they can be arranged into section libraries ready for repeated imaging. Several examples are shown in which lateral screening enables us to analyze structural details that are incredibly challenging to access with any other method.

We describe the preparation of ribbons of serial sections and their collection on large transfer support for use as Array Tomography samples, along with automated imaging procedures in a scanning electron microscope. The protocol allows screening, retrieval, and targeted imaging of local, rare events, and the acquisition of large data volumes.

Electron microscopy is applied in biology and medicine for imaging of cellular and structural details at nanometer resolution. Historically, Transmission ...

Cryo-Electron Microscopic Grid Preparation for Time-Resolved Studies using a Novel Robotic System, Spotiton

The capture of short-lived molecular states triggered by the early encounter of two or more interacting particles continues to be an experimental challenge of great interest to the field of cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). A few methodological strategies have been developed that support these &#34;time-resolved&#34; studies, one of which, Spotiton-a novel robotic system-combines the dispensing of picoliter-sized sample droplets with precise temporal and spatial control. The time-resolved Spotiton workflow offers a uniquely efficient approach to interrogate early structural rearrangements from minimal sample volume. Fired from independently controlled piezoelectric dispensers, two samples land and rapidly mix on a nanowire EM grid as it plunges toward the cryogen. Potentially hundreds of grids can be prepared in rapid succession from only a few microliters of a sample. Here, a detailed step-by-step protocol of the operation of the Spotiton system is presented with a focus on troubleshooting specific problems that arise during grid preparation.

The protocol presented here describes the use of Spotiton, a novel robotic system, to deliver two samples of interest onto a self-wicking, nanowire grid that mix for a minimum of 90 ms prior to vitrification in liquid cryogen.

The capture of short-lived molecular states triggered by the early encounter of two or more interacting particles continues to be an experimental ...

Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy of Calcium Dynamics in Acute Mouse Pancreatic Tissue Slices

The acute mouse pancreatic tissue slice is a unique in situ preparation with preserved intercellular communication and tissue architecture that entails significantly fewer preparation-induced changes than isolated islets, acini, ducts, or dispersed cells described in typical in vitro studies. By combining the acute pancreatic tissue slice with live-cell calcium imaging in confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), calcium signals can be studied in a large number of endocrine and exocrine cells simultaneously, with a single-cell or even subcellular resolution. The sensitivity permits the detection of changes and enables the study of intercellular waves and functional connectivity as well as the study of the dependence of physiological responses of cells on their localization within the islet and paracrine relationship with other cells. Finally, from the perspective of animal welfare, recording signals from a large number of cells at a time lowers the number of animals required in experiments, contributing to the 3R-replacement, reduction, and refinement-principle.

We present the preparation of acute pancreatic tissue slices and their use in confocal laser scanning microscopy to study calcium dynamics simultaneously in a large number of live cells, over long time periods, and with high spatiotemporal resolution.

The acute mouse pancreatic tissue slice is a unique in situ preparation with preserved intercellular communication and tissue architecture that entails ...