This work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (R21 AI137462-01A1), the Ted Nash Long Life Foundation, the Jasper L. and Jack Denton Wilson Foundation and the Department of Defense (DoD MIDRP W0318_19_NM_PP).

This animal protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center (protocol number 07044). This study was carried out in strict accordance with the recommendations in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health.
1. Preparing bacteria for mouse infections
NOTE: Here we describe infecting mice only with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. However, other bacterial species may be used to cause infection. Bacterial strains and materials are detailed in the Table of Materials.
<ol>
	<li>Use Pseudomonas aeruginosa wild-type strain PAO1 carrying the luminescence plasmid pQF50-lux23&#160;for these experiments as previously described7.</li>
	<li>Grow P. aeruginosa strains in baffled Erlenmeyer flasks, with shaking at 200 rpm, in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth at 37 &#176;C for 16 to 20 h. Add a final concentration of 100 &#181;g/mL of ampicillin to the overnight culture of PAO1(pQF50-lux) for maintenance of the plasmid.</li>
	<li>Subculture P. aeruginosa by adding 100 &#181;L of the overnight culture to an Erlenmeyer flask containing 10 mL of LB broth with a final concentration of 100 &#181;g/mL ampicillin. Then grow for 2-2.5 h at 37 &#176;C with shaking, to an OD600 nm of 0.4, and then serially dilute (1:10) three times for an infecting dose of approximately 104 cells.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of biofilm dispersal enzyme
NOTE: For this study we use a 10% solution of equal parts amylase and cellulase (5% of each), which will be referred to as &#34;GH&#34;, for the dispersal treatment.
<ol>
	<li>Use a 10% GH solution (w/v) of amylase (from Bacillus subtilis) and fungal cellulase (from Aspergillus niger) diluted in 1x phosphate buffer saline (PBS). Use PBS as the vehicle control treatment.</li>
	<li>Warm all treatments to 37 &#176;C for 30 min for enzyme activation.</li>
</ol>
3. Experimental animals and preoperative setup
<ol>
	<li>House mice, 5 litter mates per cage, in environment-controlled conditions, with 12 h light/dark cycles and proper access to food and water.</li>
	<li>Preferably, use female Swiss Webster mice, between 8 and 10 weeks old.</li>
	<li>Weigh mice to determine the proper amount of anesthesia to administer.</li>
	<li>Administer anesthesia by the intraperitoneal injection of 100 mg/kg ketamine 10 mg/kg xylazine.</li>
	<li>Apply eye cream (e.g., Refresh P.M.) carefully onto the eye using a cotton swab to reduce dryness.</li>
	<li>Monitor physiologic parameters including respiratory rate, skin coloration, and body temperature throughout the surgery.</li>
</ol>
4. Dorsal full thickness excision surgery
<ol>
	<li>Assess surgical plane of anesthesia by toe pinch and monitoring of respiratory rate and effort. Shave the dorsal surface and apply a depilatory cream for 10 min (or as per product&#39;s instructions), after which&#160;gently remove, ensuring the skin was dry.</li>
	<li>For pain management, administer 0.05 mL of lidocaine subcutaneously into the area to be excised, and inject 0.02 mL of buprenorphine subcutaneously into the scruff of the neck. Wait 10 min to ensure pain management was reached.</li>
	<li>Before excision, disinfect the dorsal surface using an alcohol swab and draw a 1.5-cm diameter circle towards the posterior portion of the back. Maintain a sterile surgical field throughout the procedure and used autoclaved instruments and sterile gloves. To limit contamination, conduct the surgery by a lit Bunsen burner and use clean tools for each animal.</li>
	<li>Administer a full-thickness, excisional skin wound to the level of panniculus muscle with surgical scissors.</li>
	<li>After excision, immediately cover wounds with a semipermeable polyurethane dressing.</li>
	<li>Inject approximately 104 CFU of bacteria in 100 &#181;L PBS under the dressing, onto the wound bed, to establish an infection. 
	NOTE: Wounds can also be infected with multiple species of bacteria and/or fungi simultaneously, or by placing pre-formed biofilms12, or even debridement tissue extracted from patients19, onto the wound bed.</li>
	<li>After infection, place mice into cage with heating pads and monitor until they regained their righting reflex. 
	NOTE: Ensure that mice do not get cold as this can lead to death.</li>
	<li>Establish wound infections for 48 h.</li>
	<li>Inspect adhesive dressings daily for tears and areas of non-adherence and replaced if needed.</li>
</ol>
5. In vivo dispersal treatment
NOTE: Here we describe administration of the dispersal agents by applying a series of 3 topical wound irrigation solutions (Figure 1). However, the protocol can be adapted for other types of delivery such as the application of gels, creams or dressings.
<ol>
	<li>Place mice under isoflurane anesthesia (at 3% and 1 L per minute of oxygen) while administering the treatments.</li>
	<li>Prepare three 1 mL syringes, with 25 G needles, containing 200 &#181;L of treatment for each mouse.</li>
	<li>Inject 200 &#181;L of enzyme solution or PBS control onto the wound by carefully lifting and pinching the skin with forceps, slightly above the wound toward the head of the animal. Carefully pierce the syringe through the lifted skin and slowly inject the solution between the dressing and the wound bed. The dressing utilized in this study often adheres to both the wound bed and the surrounding tissue.
	<ol>
		<li>To ensure that the entire wound bed is covered by solution, gently raise the dressing with forceps, pulling it away from the wound bed, while slowly injecting the solution.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>After treatment, place mice back in their cages for 30 min.</li>
	<li>After 30 min of exposure to the treatment, re-anesthetize the mice with isoflurane and aspirate the solution with a syringe, making sure to puncture in the same area as before. 
	NOTE: This aspirated solution contains dispersed bacterial cells, which may be saved for various downstream analyses.</li>
	<li>Administer the second and third irrigation treatments as the first, using a new syringe each time.</li>
</ol>
6. In vivo dispersal imaging and analysis
NOTE: If a luminescent strain of bacteria is utilized to initiate infection, an In Vivo Imaging System (IVIS) can be used to visualize dispersal from the wound bed.
<ol>
	<li>Image mice immediately before and after treatment and at 10 and 20 h post-treatment (Figure 2 and Supplemental Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Perform imaging while mice are under anesthesia by placing them individually in the IVIS and imaging each one for 5 s at a wavelength of 560 nm. Save images for further analysis. 
	NOTE: Optimal wavelength and exposure time will depend on the reporter used and the IVIS instrument and imaging software.</li>
	<li>For analysis, open images in the IVIS software and select the area to be analyzed in the Tool Palette.</li>
	<li>To account for background, place a circle on the background of a photo and then place the same sized circle on top of the wound bed for each mouse.</li>
	<li>To upload measurement values, select View -&#62; Region of Interest (ROI) measurements and upload the table of measurements to a spreadsheet. Subtract the background circle reading from each of the wound bed measurements to calculate luminescence for each sample. Calculate percent luminescence changed by: 
	ROI pre-treatment-ROI post-treatment/ ROI pre-treatment) x 100. 
	&#8203;NOTE: Control and treated mice should be analyzed simultaneously to normalize for variables that may affect image acquisition or radiance.</li>
</ol>
7. Assessing dispersal by determining CFU
<ol>
	<li>Humanely euthanize mice by the intraperitoneal injection of 0.2 mL of pentobarbital sodium (e.g., Fatal Plus) under anesthesia with 100 mg/kg ketamine 10 mg/kg xylazine.</li>
	<li>Harvest wound bed tissue by first gently removing the dressing with sterile forceps, and then cut&#160;around the perimeter of the wound bed with sterile surgical scissors. Gently lift one end of the wound bed with forceps while using scissors to cut/tease the sample away from the muscle layer.</li>
	<li>Place tissue from the wound bed in pre-labeled and pre-weighed 2 mL homogenization tube containing 1 mL of PBS. Weigh the tubes again after inserting the samples, and then gently invert 3-5 times to rinse off any dispersed or loosely adhered bacteria, and remove the PBS. Add 1 mL of fresh PBS.</li>
	<li>In order to harvest the spleens, place mice in a supine anatomical position and secure by pinning their extremities to a dissection surface. Soak the area to be dissected with 70% ethanol in order to disinfect the area and keep the fur from contaminating the sample.</li>
	<li>Carefully make a small incision perpendicular to the midline with surgical scissors in the dermis of the lower abdomen, making sure to pull the skin up and away from the internal organs. Continue the incision interiorly, along the mid-line, until the sternum was reached. Once the peritoneal cavity was exposed and the internal organs were visible, gently separate the spleen from the connective tissue and place in a separate homogenization tube.</li>
	<li>Weigh spleen and rinse with PBS, as described for the wound bed tissue. 
	NOTE: Other organs of interest can be similarly harvested.
	<ol>
		<li>When making the initial incision, take care to avoid puncturing the intestines, or other organs.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Homogenize samples in 2 mL pre-filled bead mill tubes using a benchtop homogenizer at 5 m/s for 60 s, twice.</li>
	<li>To enumerate CFU, serially dilute samples and spot-plate on selective agar. For serial dilution, pipette 100 &#181;L of the sample into 900 &#181;L of PBS in a 1.5 mL tube, vortex, and repeat 5 times. Pipette 10 &#181;L of each dilution onto an agar plate as shown in Figure 3. 
	&#8203;NOTE: If more precise CFU quantitation is required, spread 100 &#181;L of each dilution of the sample across separate agar plates.</li>
</ol>
8. Ex vivo assessment of dispersal (Figure 4)
<ol>
	<li>Wound mice and infect with approximately 104 PAO1 as described above, and then euthanize 48 h after infection.</li>
	<li>Carefully remove the dressing with forceps, using sterile technique and without disturbing the wound bed.</li>
	<li>Use sterile surgical scissors to cut the perimeter of the wound bed away from the uninfected skin by using forceps to lift one end of the wound bed and scissors to excise infected wound tissue from the muscle layer underneath and surrounding uninfected tissue. Divide wound bed samples into equal parts or use whole.</li>
	<li>Place wound tissue into empty, pre-weighed 2 mL bead mill homogenizing tubes. Then weigh the tubes again after adding the sample. Calculate the weight of the sample by: 
	weight after adding sample - weight before adding sample.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of PBS, and gently invert tube 3-5 times to rinse the sample and remove any planktonic cells. Remove and discard the PBS.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of GH treatment (or PBS as a negative control) to the sample and incubate for 2 h at 37 &#176;C with shaking at 80 rpm.</li>
	<li>Remove the biofilm dispersal solution and place into a separate 1.5 mL tube. This contains the dispersed cells.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of PBS to the remaining tissue sample and gently invert 3-5 times to rinse off any remaining dispersed cells. Remove and discard the PBS.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of PBS to the remaining tissue and homogenize at 5 m/s for 60 s using a benchtop homogenizer.</li>
	<li>Serially dilute the solution of dispersed cells and the homogenized tissue sample by placing 100 &#181;L of sample into 900 &#181;L of PBS in a 1.5 mL tube, and repeating five times for a total of 6 dilutions.</li>
	<li>Spot-plate 10 &#181;L of each dilution onto media selective agar (e.g., Pseudomonas Isolation Agar for P. aeruginosa) and incubate the plates at 37 &#176;C overnight.</li>
	<li>Count the CFU and calculate the &#39;percent dispersed&#39; as (CFU in supernatant/ (CFU in supernatant+ CFU in biofilm tissue)) x 100.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Here we describe protocols that can be utilized to study the efficacy of biofilm dispersal agents. These protocols can be easily adapted to use with different types of dispersal agents, bacterial species or ex vivo samples, including clinical debridement samples. This protocol also provides a clinically relevant model to collect and study dispersed bacterial cells. The phenotypes of dispersed bacterial cells have been shown to be distinct from those of either planktonic or biofilm cells 5...

The rise of antibiotic resistance worldwide is leading to a lack of antibiotic options to treat a variety of bacterial infections1. In addition to antibiotic resistance, bacteria can gain antibiotic tolerance by adopting a biofilm-associated lifestyle2. A biofilm is a community of microorganisms that are protected by a matrix of polysaccharides, extracellular DNA, lipids, and proteins3, collectively called the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). As the antibiotic resistance crisis continues, new strategies that prolong the use of, or potentiate the efficacy of, antibiotics are sorely needed. Anti-biofilm agents are one promising solution4.
Amongst the different anti-biofilm strategies that have been proposed, the utilization of dispersal agents, which target different components of the biofilm EPS, are at the forefront of therapeutic development5. Glycoside hydrolases (GH) are one such class of dispersal agent. GH are a large class of enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of different bonds within the polysaccharides that provide structural integrity to the EPS. Our group, as well as others, have shown that GH can effectively degrade biofilms, induce dispersal and improve antibiotic efficacy for a number of different bacterial species, both in vitro and in vivo6,7,8,9,10,11.
With a growing interest in biofilm dispersal,it is important to develop effective methods that assess dispersal efficacy. Here, we present a detailed protocol for the treatment of biofilm-associated wound infections with a dispersal agent in mice,&#160;and the assessment of dispersal efficacy, in vivo and ex vivo. The overall goal is to provide effective methods that can be used with preclinical models to measure biofilm dispersal effectively and efficiently.
A murine surgical excision infection model was used in these studies to establish a biofilm-associated infection. We have used this model for over 15 years and published our observations extensively7,9,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21. In general, this is a non-lethal infection model where bacteria remain localized to the wound bed and are biofilm-associated (bacteria seen in aggregates surrounded by EPS), setting up a chronic infection that lasts up to 3 weeks. However, if mice are immunocompromised (with Type 1 diabetes for example), they can become more susceptible to developing a fatal systemic infection in this model.
In this report, we provide protocols for assessing the dispersal of bacteria from a wound, both in vivo and ex vivo. Both protocols can be used to examine the efficacy of a dispersal agent and have their own strengths and weaknesses. For example, assessing dispersal in vivo can provide important, real-time information about the spread of bacteria to other parts of the body after dispersal, and how the host responds. On the other hand, assessing dispersal ex vivo may be more desirable for screening multiple agents, doses, or formulations, as the tissue can be divided into multiple sections that can be tested separately, thus reducing the number of mice required. When assessing multiple agents, we typically measure dispersal first in vitro as previously described 6,9,22. We then test the most effective ex vivo and reserve in vivo testing for a limited number of very promising agents.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14823434</td>
			<td>Use to complete serial dilutions of samples</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>25G 58 in needle</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14823434</td>
			<td>Attaches to 1 mL syringe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin Sodium Salt</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1760-5</td>
			<td>Make a 50 mg/ mL stock solution and add 100 &#181;L to 10 mL of LB broth for both overnight and subculture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amylase</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>2100447</td>
			<td>Make a 5% w/v solution, vortex- other dispersal agents can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buprenorphine SR-LAB 5 mL (1 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>ZooPharm</td>
			<td>RX216118</td>
			<td>Use as pain mainagement- may use other options</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cellulase</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>2150583</td>
			<td>Add 5% w/v to the 5% w/v amylase solution, vortex, activate at 37 &#176;C for 30 min- other dispersal agents can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Depilatory cream</td>
			<td>Walmart</td>
			<td>287746</td>
			<td>Use a small amount to massage into the hair follicles on the back of the animal and allot 10 min to remove hair</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dressing Forceps, Serrated Tips</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-460-536</td>
			<td>Can use other forms of forceps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Erlenmeyer flasks baffled 125 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>101406</td>
			<td>Use to grow overnights and sub-cultures of bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FastPrep-24 Benchtop Homogenizer</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>6VFV9</td>
			<td>Use 5 m/s for 60 s two times to homogenize tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fatal Plus</td>
			<td>Vortech Pharmaceuticals</td>
			<td>0298-9373-68</td>
			<td>Inject 0.2 mL intraperitaneal for each mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Homogenizing tubes (Bead Tube 2 mL 2.4 mm Metal)</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>15340151</td>
			<td>Used to homogenize samples for plating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Diamond Back Drugs</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine hydrochloride/xylazine hydrochloride solution C-IIIN</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>K4138</td>
			<td>Use as anasethia- other options can also be utilized to gain a surgical field of anasethia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth, Miller</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1426-2</td>
			<td>Add 25 g/L and autoclave</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lidocaine 2% Injectable</td>
			<td>Diamond Back Drugs</td>
			<td>2468</td>
			<td>Inject 0.05 mL through the side of the marked wound bed area so it is deposited in the center of the mark. Allot 10 min prior to cutting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Meropenem</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>PHR1772-500MG</td>
			<td>Make 5 mg/mL to add to the GH solution to apply topically and a 15 mg/mL solution to inject intraperitaneal 4 h prior and 6 h post-treatment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Non-sterile cotton gauze sponges</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>13-761-52</td>
			<td>Use to remove the depilatory cream</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PAO1 pQF50-lux bacterial strain</td>
			<td>Ref [13]</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>PAO1 pgF50-lux was used as the P. aeruginosa strain of interest in this paper&#39;s representative results</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>PHR1772-500MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffer Saline 10x</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP3991</td>
			<td>Dilute 10x to 1x prior to use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyurethane dressing</td>
			<td>Mckesson</td>
			<td>66024007</td>
			<td>Cut the rounded edge off and cut the remaining square into 4 equal sections</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pseudomonas isolation agar</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>90004-394</td>
			<td>Add 20 mL/L of glycerol and 45 g/mL to water, autoclave, and pour 20 mL into petri dishes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refresh P.M.</td>
			<td>Walmart</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Use on eyes to reduce dryness during procedure.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile Alcohol Prep Pads</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>22-363-750</td>
			<td>Use to clean the skin immediately prior to wounding to disinfect the area</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Straight Delicate Scissors</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>89515</td>
			<td>Can also use curved scissors</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Swiss Webster mice</td>
			<td>Charles River</td>
			<td>551NCISWWEB</td>
			<td>Other mice strains can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syring Slip Tip 1 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>14823434</td>
			<td>Used to administer drugs and enzyme treatment</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessing biofilm dispersal in murine wounds

Biofilm-related infections are implicated in a wide array of chronic conditions such as non-healing diabetic foot ulcers, chronic sinusitis, reoccurring otitis media, and many more. Microbial cells within these infections are protected by an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), which can prevent antibiotics and host immune cells from clearing the infection. To overcome this obstacle, investigators have begun developing dispersal agents as potential therapeutics. These agents target various components within the biofilm EPS, weakening the structure, and initiating dispersal of the bacteria, which can theoretically improve antibiotic potency and immune clearance. To determine the efficacy of dispersal agents for wound infections, we have developed protocols that measure biofilm dispersal both ex vivo and in vivo. We use a mouse surgical excision model that has been well-described to create biofilm-associated chronic wound infections. To monitor dispersal in vivo, we infect the wounds with bacterial strains that express luciferase. Once mature infections have established, we irrigate the wounds with a solution containing enzymes that degrade components of the biofilm EPS. We then monitor the location and intensity of the luminescent signal in the wound and filtering organs to provide information about the level of dispersal achieved. For ex vivo analysis of biofilm dispersal, infected wound tissue is submerged in biofilm-degrading enzyme solution, after which the bacterial load remaining in the tissue, versus the bacterial load in solution, is assessed. Both protocols have strengths and weaknesses and can be optimized to help accurately determine the efficacy of dispersal treatments.

In this experiment, 8-10 week old female Swiss Webster mice were infected with 104 CFU of PAO1 carrying the luminescence plasmid pQF50-lux. As described above, an infection was allowed to establish for 48 h prior to administering 3 x 30 min treatments of either PBS (vehicle control) or 10% GH (treatment) to digest the biofilm EPS. Mice were imaged pre-treatment, directly after treatment (0 h) and at 10 h and 20 h post-treatment. Figure 2A and Supplemental Figure 1 </strong...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Biofilm Dispersal in Murine Wounds at JoVE.com

Assessing Biofilm Dispersal in Murine Wounds

Here, we describe ex vivo and in vivo methods for assessing bacterial dispersal from a wound infection in mice. This protocol can be utilized to test the efficacy of topical antimicrobial and anti-biofilm therapies, or to assess the dispersal capacity of different bacterial strains or species.

Biofilm-related infections are implicated in a wide array of chronic conditions such as non-healing diabetic foot ulcers, chronic sinusitis, reoccurring ...

assessing-biofilm-dispersal-in-murine-wounds

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

4.2K Views.  Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center. Here, we describe ex vivo and in vivo methods for assessing bacterial dispersal from a wound infection in mice. This protocol can be utilized to test the efficacy of topical antimicrobial and anti-biofilm therapies, or to assess the dispersal capacity of different bacterial strains or species. 

Video: Assessing Biofilm Dispersal in Murine Wounds

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biofilm in Flow Cells

Many microbial cells have the ability to form sessile microbial communities defined as biofilms that have altered physiological and pathological properties compared to free living microorganisms. Biofilms in nature are often difficult to investigate and reside under poorly defined conditions1. Using a transparent substratum it is possible to device a system where simple biofilms can be examined in a non-destructive way in real-time: here we demonstrate the assembly and operation of a flow cell model system, for in vitro 3D studies of microbial biofilms generating high reproducibility under well-defined conditions2,3.
The system consists of a flow cell that serves as growth chamber for the biofilm. The flow cell is supplied with nutrients and oxygen from a medium flask via a peristaltic pump and spent medium is collected in a waste container. This construction of the flow system allows a continuous supply of nutrients and administration of e.g. antibiotics with minimal disturbance of the cells grown in the flow chamber. Moreover, the flow conditions within the flow cell allow studies of biofilm exposed to shear stress. A bubble trapping device confines air bubbles from the tubing which otherwise could disrupt the biofilm structure in the flow cell.
The flow cell system is compatible with Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) and can thereby provide highly detailed 3D information about developing microbial biofilms. Cells in the biofilm can be labeled with fluorescent probes or proteins compatible with CLSM analysis. This enables online visualization and allows investigation of niches in the developing biofilm. Microbial interrelationship, investigation of antimicrobial agents or the expression of specific genes, are of the many experimental setups that can be investigated in the flow cell system.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biofilm in Flow Cells

Protocol describing the application of a flow cell system for growing and analyzing microbial biofilms for Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM).

Many microbial cells have the ability to form sessile microbial communities defined as biofilms that have altered physiological and pathological ...

Microtiter Dish Biofilm Formation Assay

Biofilms are communities of microbes attached to surfaces, which can be found in medical, industrial and natural settings. In fact, life in a biofilm probably represents the predominate mode of growth for microbes in most environments. Mature biofilms have a few distinct characteristics. Biofilm microbes are typically surrounded by an extracellular matrix that provides structure and protection to the community. Microbes growing in a biofilm also have a characteristic architecture generally comprised of macrocolonies (containing thousands of cells) surrounded by fluid-filled channels. Biofilm-grown microbes are also notorious for their resistance to a range of antimicrobial agents including clinically relevant antibiotics.
The microtiter dish assay is an important tool for the study of the early stages in biofilm formation, and has been applied primarily for the study of bacterial biofilms, although this assay has also been used to study fungal biofilm formation. Because this assay uses static, batch-growth conditions, it does not allow for the formation of the mature biofilms typically associated with flow cell systems. However, the assay has been effective at identifying many factors required for initiation of biofilm formation (i.e, flagella, pili, adhesins, enzymes involved in cyclic-di-GMP binding and metabolism) and well as genes involved in extracellular polysaccharide production. Furthermore, published work indicates that biofilms grown in microtiter dishes do develop some properties of mature biofilms, such a antibiotic tolerance and resistance to immune system effectors.
This simple microtiter dish assay allows for the formation of a biofilm on the wall and/or bottom of a microtiter dish. The high throughput nature of the assay makes it useful for genetic screens, as well as testing biofilm formation by multiple strains under various growth conditions. Variants of this assay have been used to assess early biofilm formation for a wide variety of microbes, including but not limited to, pseudomonads, Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, staphylocci, enterococci, mycobacteria and fungi.
In the protocol described here, we will focus on the use of this assay to study biofilm formation by the model organism Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In this assay, the extent of biofilm formation is measured using the dye crystal violet (CV). However, a number of other colorimetric and metabolic stains have been reported for the quantification of biofilm formation using the microtiter plate assay. The ease, low cost and flexibility of the microtiter plate assay has made it a critical tool for the study of biofilms.

The assay describes a rapid means to measure early biofilm formation in bacteria and fungi. This method uses a microtiter plate as the substratum for microbial biofilm formation, and the biofilm is visualized using crystal violet strain. The assay provides either a qualitative or quantitative assay for early biofilm formation.

Biofilms are communities of microbes attached to surfaces, which can be found in medical, industrial and natural settings.  In fact, life in a biofilm ...

In vitro Biofilm Formation in an 8-well Chamber Slide

The chronic nature of many diseases is attributed to the formation of bacterial biofilms which are recalcitrant to traditional antibiotic therapy. Biofilms are community-associated bacteria attached to a surface and encased in a matrix. The role of the extracellular matrix is multifaceted, including facilitating nutrient acquisition, and offers significant protection against environmental stresses (e.g. host immune responses). In an effort to acquire a better understanding as to how the bacteria within a biofilm respond to environmental stresses we have used a protocol wherein we visualize bacterial biofilms which have formed in an 8-well chamber slide. The biofilms were stained with the BacLight Live/Dead stain and examined using a confocal microscope to characterize the relative biofilm size, and structure under varying incubation conditions. Z-stack images were collected via confocal microscopy and analyzed by COMSTAT. This protocol can be used to help elucidate the mechanism and kinetics by which biofilms form, as well as identify components that are important to biofilm structure and stability.

In vitro Biofilm Formation in an 8-well Chamber Slide

This article describes the procedure for the formation and visualization of a bacterial biofilm grown within an 8-well chamber slide

The chronic nature of many diseases is attributed to the formation of bacterial biofilms which are recalcitrant to traditional antibiotic therapy. ...

Assessing the Development of Murine Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells in Peyer's Patches Using Adoptive Transfer of Hematopoietic Progenitors

This protocol details a method to analyze the ability of purified hematopoietic progenitors to generate plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) in intestinal Peyer&#39;s patch (PP). Common dendritic cell progenitors (CDPs, lin- c-kitlo CD115+ Flt3+) were purified from the bone marrow of C57BL6 mice by FACS and transferred to recipient mice that lack a significant pDC population in PP; in this case, Ifnar-/- mice were used as the transfer recipients. In some mice, overexpression of the dendritic cell growth factor Flt3 ligand (Flt3L) was enforced prior to adoptive transfer of CDPs, using hydrodynamic gene transfer (HGT) of Flt3L-encoding plasmid. Flt3L overexpression expands DC populations originating from transferred (or endogenous) hematopoietic progenitors. At 7-10 days after progenitor transfer, pDCs that arise from the adoptively transferred progenitors were distinguished from recipient cells on the basis of CD45 marker expression, with pDCs from transferred CDPs being CD45.1+ and recipients being CD45.2+. The ability of transferred CDPs to contribute to the pDC population in PP and to respond to Flt3L was evaluated by flow cytometry of PP single cell suspensions from recipient mice. This method may be used to test whether other progenitor populations are capable of generating PP pDCs. In addition, this approach could be used to examine the role of factors that are predicted to affect pDC development in PP, by transferring progenitor subsets with an appropriate knockdown, knockout or overexpression of the putative developmental factor and/or by manipulating circulating cytokines via HGT. This method may also allow analysis of how PP pDCs affect the frequency or function of other immune subsets in PPs. A unique feature of this method is the use of Ifnar-/- mice, which show severely depleted PP pDCs relative to wild type animals, thus allowing reconstitution of PP pDCs in the absence of confounding effects from lethal irradiation.

Assessing the Development of Murine Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells in Peyer&#039;s Patches Using Adoptive Transfer of Hematopoietic Progenitors

This protocol describes experimental procedures to assess the differentiation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in Peyer&#8217;s patch from common dendritic cell progenitors, using techniques involving FACS-mediated cell isolation, hydrodynamic gene transfer, and flow analysis of immune subsets in Peyer&#8217;s patch.

This protocol details a method to analyze the ability of purified hematopoietic progenitors to generate plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) in intestinal ...

Visualizing the Effects of Sputum on Biofilm Development Using a Chambered Coverglass Model

Biofilms consist of groups of bacteria encased in a self-secreted matrix. They play an important role in industrial contamination as well as in the development and persistence of many health related infections. One of the most well described and studied biofilms in human disease occurs in chronic pulmonary infection of cystic fibrosis patients. When studying biofilms in the context of the host, many factors can impact biofilm formation and development. In order to identify how host factors may affect biofilm formation and development, we used a static chambered coverglass method to grow biofilms in the presence of host-derived factors in the form of sputum supernatants. Bacteria are seeded into chambers and exposed to sputum filtrates. Following 48 hr of growth, biofilms are stained with a commercial biofilm viability kit prior to confocal microscopy and analysis. Following image acquisition, biofilm properties can be assessed using different software platforms. This method allows us to visualize key properties of biofilm growth in presence of different substances including antibiotics.

This protocol describes the visualization of biofilm development following exposure to host-factors using a slide chamber model. This model allows for direct visualization of biofilm development as well as analysis of biofilm parameters using computer software programs.

Biofilms consist of groups of bacteria encased in a self-secreted matrix. They play an important role in industrial contamination as well as in the ...

Come to the Light Side: In Vivo Monitoring of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Infections in Chronic Wounds in a Diabetic Hairless Murine Model

The presence of bacteria as structured biofilms in chronic wounds, especially in diabetic patients, is thought to prevent wound healing and resolution. Chronic mouse wounds models have been used to understand the underlying interactions between the microorganisms and the host. The models developed to date rely on the use of haired animals and terminal collection of wound tissue for determination of viable bacteria. While significant insight has been gained with these models, this experimental procedure requires a large number of animals and sampling is time consuming. We have developed a novel murine model that incorporates several optimal innovations to evaluate biofilm progression in chronic wounds: a) it utilizes hairless mice, eliminating the need for hair removal; b) applies pre-formed biofilms to the wounds allowing for the immediate evaluation of persistence and effect of these communities on host; c) monitors biofilm progression by quantifying light production by a genetically engineered bioluminescent strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, allowing real-time monitoring of the infection thus reducing the number of animals required per study. In this model, a single full-depth wound is produced on the back of STZ-induced diabetic hairless mice and inoculated with biofilms of the P. aeruginosa bioluminescent strain Xen 41. Light output from the wounds is recorded daily in an in vivo imaging system, allowing for in vivo and in situ rapid biofilm visualization and localization of biofilm bacteria within the wounds. This novel method is flexible as it can be used to study other microorganisms, including genetically engineered species and multi-species biofilms, and may be of special value in testing anti-biofilm strategies including antimicrobial occlusive dressings.

Come to the Light Side: In Vivo Monitoring of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Infections in Chronic Wounds in a Diabetic Hairless Murine Model

Here we describe a novel diabetic murine model utilizing hairless mice for real-time, non-invasive, monitoring of biofilm wound infections of bioluminescent Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This method can be adapted to evaluate infection of other bacterial species and genetically modified microorganisms, including multi-species biofilms, and test the efficacy of antibiofilm strategies.

The presence of bacteria as structured biofilms in chronic wounds, especially in diabetic patients, is thought to prevent wound healing and resolution. ...

Visualization of Biofilm Formation in Candida albicans Using an Automated Microfluidic Device

Candida albicans is the most common fungal pathogen of humans, causing about 15% of hospital-acquired sepsis cases. A major virulence attribute of C. albicans is its ability to form biofilms, structured communities of cells attached to biotic and abiotic surfaces. C. albicans biofilms can form on host tissues, such as mucosal layers, and on medical devices, such as catheters, pacemakers, dentures, and joint prostheses. Biofilms pose significant clinical challenges because they are highly resistant to physical and chemical perturbations, and can act as reservoirs to seed disseminated infections. Various in vitro assays have been utilized to study C. albicans biofilm formation, such as microtiter plate assays, dry weight measurements, cell viability assays, and confocal scanning laser microscopy. All of these assays are single end-point assays, where biofilm formation is assessed at a specific time point. Here, we describe a protocol to study biofilm formation in real-time using an automated microfluidic device under laminar flow conditions. This method allows for the observation of biofilm formation as the biofilm develops over time, using customizable conditions that mimic those of the host, such as those encountered in vascular catheters. This protocol can be used to assess the biofilm defects of genetic mutants as well as the inhibitory effects of antimicrobial agents on biofilm development in real-time.

Visualization of Biofilm Formation in Candida albicans Using an Automated Microfluidic Device

This protocol describes the use of a customizable automated microfluidic device to visualize biofilm formation in Candida albicans under host physiological conditions.

Candida albicans is the most common fungal pathogen of humans, causing about 15% of hospital-acquired sepsis cases. A major virulence attribute of C. ...

Bile Salt-induced Biofilm Formation in Enteric Pathogens: Techniques for Identification and Quantification

Biofilm formation is a dynamic, multistage process that occurs in bacteria under harsh environmental conditions or times of stress. For enteric pathogens, a significant stress response is induced during gastrointestinal transit and upon bile exposure, a normal component of human digestion. To overcome the bactericidal effects of bile, many enteric pathogens form a biofilm hypothesized to permit survival when transiting through the small intestine. Here we present methodologies to define biofilm formation through solid-phase adherence assays as well as extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix detection and visualization. Furthermore, biofilm dispersion assessment is presented to mimic the analysis of events triggering release of bacteria during the infection process. Crystal violet staining is used to detect adherent bacteria in a high-throughput 96-well plate adherence assay. EPS production assessment is determined by two assays, namely microscopy staining of the EPS matrix and semi-quantitative analysis with a fluorescently-conjugated polysaccharide binding lectin. Finally, biofilm dispersion is measured through colony counts and plating. Positive data from multiple assays support the characterization of biofilms and can be utilized to identify bile salt-induced biofilm formation in other bacterial strains.

This protocol enables the reader to analyze bile salt-induced biofilm formation in enteric pathogens using a multifaceted approach to capture the dynamic nature of bacterial biofilms by assessing adherence, extracellular polymeric substance matrix formation, and dispersion.

Biofilm formation is a dynamic, multistage process that occurs in bacteria under harsh environmental conditions or times of stress. For enteric pathogens, ...

Optimization of the Cuff Technique for Murine Heart Transplantation

Murine cardiac transplantation has been performed for more than 40 years. With advancements in microsurgery, certain new techniques have been used to improve surgical efficiency. In our lab, we have optimized the cuff technique with two major steps. First, we used the inner tube technique to insert a temporary inner tube into the external jugular vein and carotid artery blood vessel to facilitate eversion of the vessel over the cuff. Second, we performed complete heterotopic cardiac transplantation through the collaboration of two experienced surgeons. These modifications effectively reduced the operation time to 25 minutes, with a success rate of 95%. In this report, we describe these procedures in detail and provide a supplemental video. We believe that this report on the improved cuff technique will offer practical guidance for murine heterotopic heart transplantation and will enhance the utility of this mouse model for basic research.

We introduce an inner tube approach to the cuff technique for mouse cervical heterotopic heart transplantation to help evert the vessel over the cuff. We found that cooperation between two experienced surgeons markedly shortens the operation time.

Murine cardiac transplantation has been performed for more than 40 years. With advancements in microsurgery, certain new techniques have been used to ...

Assessing the Expression of Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I on Primary Murine Hippocampal Neurons by Flow Cytometry

Increasing evidence supports the hypothesis that neuro-immune interactions impact nervous system function in both homeostatic and pathologic conditions. A well-studied function of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHCI) is the presentation of cell-derived peptides to the adaptive immune system, particularly in response to infection. More recently it has been shown that the expression of MHCI molecules on neurons can modulate activity-dependent changes in the synaptic connectivity during normal development and neurologic disorders. The importance of these functions to the brain health supports the need for a sensitive assay that readily detects MHCI expression on neurons. Here we describe a method for primary culture of murine hippocampal neurons and then assessment of MHCI expression by flow cytometric analysis. Murine hippocampus is microdissected from prenatal mouse pups at the embryonic day 18. Tissue is dissociated into a single cell suspension using enzymatic and mechanical techniques, then cultured in a serum-free media that limits growth of non-neuronal cells. After 7 days in vitro, MHCI expression is stimulated by treating cultured cells pharmacologically with beta interferon. MHCI molecules are labeled in situ with a fluorescently tagged antibody, then cells are non-enzymatically dissociated into a single cell suspension. To confirm the neuronal identity, cells are fixed with paraformaldehyde, permeabilized, and labeled with a fluorescently tagged antibody that recognizes neuronal nuclear antigen NeuN. MHCI expression is then quantified on neurons by flow cytometric analysis. Neuronal cultures can easily be manipulated by either genetic modifications or pharmacologic interventions to test specific hypotheses. With slight modifications, these methods can be used to culture other neuronal populations or to assess expression of other proteins of interest.

This protocol describes a method for culturing primary hippocampal neurons from embryonic mouse brain. The expression of major histocompatibility complex class I on the extracellular surface of cultured neurons is then assessed by flow cytometric analysis.

Increasing evidence supports the hypothesis that neuro-immune interactions impact nervous system function in both homeostatic and pathologic conditions. A ...