Name: investigating the phagocytosis of leishmania using confocal microscopy
Uploaded: 2021-07-29T13:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating the Phagocytosis of Leishmania using Confocal Microscopy at JoVE.com

We thank Gon&#231;alo Moniz Institute, Fiocruz Bahia, Brazil and the department of microscopy for assistance. This work was supported by INOVA-FIOCRUZ number 79700287000, P.S.T.V. holds a grant for productivity in research from CNPq (305235/2019-2). Plasmids were kindly provided by Mauricio Terebiznik, University of Toronto, CA. The authors would like to thank Andris K. Walter for English language revision and manuscript copyediting assistance.

Cells were obtained from healthy donors following the approval of procedures by the National Research Ethics Committees (ID: 94648218.8.0000.0040).
1. Cell cultures
<ol>
	<li>Human monocyte-derived macrophages 
	NOTE: To obtain human monocyte-derived macrophages for in vitro differentiation into macrophages, collect blood from healthy donors and purify peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) as described by D. English and B. R. Andersen21.
	<ol>
		<li>...

<ol>
	<li>Goto, H., Lauletta Lindoso, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cutaneous+and+mucocutaneous+leishmaniasis.">Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis.</a> Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 26 (2), 293-307 (2012).</li><li>World Health Organization. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+the+leishmaniases.">Control of the leishmaniases.</a> World Health Organization Technical Report Series. (949), 1 (2010).</li><li>Alexander, J., Russell, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+interaction+of+Leishmania+species+with+macrophages.">The interaction of Leishmania species with macrophages.</a> Advances in Parasitology. 31, 175-254 (1992).</li><li>Mosser, D. M., Rosenthal, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leishmania-macrophage+interactions:+multiple+receptors,+multiple+ligands+and+diverse+cellular+responses.">Leishmania-macrophage interactions: multiple receptors, multiple ligands and diverse cellular responses.</a> Seminars in Cell Biology. 4 (5), 315-322 (1993).</li><li>Awasthi, A., Mathur, R. K., Saha, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immune+response+to+Leishmania+infection.">Immune response to Leishmania infection.</a> Indian Journal of Medical Research. 119 (6), 238-258 (2004).</li><li>Blackwell, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+macrophage+complement+and+lectin-like+receptors+in+binding+Leishmania+parasites+to+host+macrophages.">Role of macrophage complement and lectin-like receptors in binding Leishmania parasites to host macrophages.</a> Immunology Letters. 11 (3-4), 227-232 (1985).</li><li>Mosser, D. M., Edelson, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mouse+macrophage+receptor+for+C3bi+(CR3)+is+a+major+mechanism+in+the+phagocytosis+of+Leishmania+promastigotes.">The mouse macrophage receptor for C3bi (CR3) is a major mechanism in the phagocytosis of Leishmania promastigotes.</a> Journal of Immunology. 135 (4), 2785-2789 (1985).</li><li>Gough, P. J., Gordon, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+scavenger+receptors+in+the+innate+immune+system.">The role of scavenger receptors in the innate immune system.</a> Microbes and Infection. 2 (3), 305-311 (2000).</li><li>Russell, D. G., Wilhelm, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+involvement+of+the+major+surface+glycoprotein+(gp63)+of+Leishmania+promastigotes+in+attachment+to+macrophages.">The involvement of the major surface glycoprotein (gp63) of Leishmania promastigotes in attachment to macrophages.</a> Journal of Immunology. 136 (7), 2613-2620 (1986).</li><li>Handman, E., Goding, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Leishmania+receptor+for+macrophages+is+a+lipid-containing+glycoconjugate.">The Leishmania receptor for macrophages is a lipid-containing glycoconjugate.</a> EMBO J. 4 (2), 329-336 (1985).</li><li>Holm, A., Tejle, K., Magnusson, K. E., Descoteaux, A., Rasmusson, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leishmania+donovani+lipophosphoglycan+causes+periphagosomal+actin+accumulation:+correlation+with+impaired+translocation+of+PKCalpha+and+defective+phagosome+maturation.">Leishmania donovani lipophosphoglycan causes periphagosomal actin accumulation: correlation with impaired translocation of PKCalpha and defective phagosome maturation.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 3 (7), 439-447 (2001).</li><li>Vergne, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+phagolysosome+biogenesis+block+by+viable+Mycobacterium+tuberculosis.">Mechanism of phagolysosome biogenesis block by viable Mycobacterium tuberculosis.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (11), 4033-4038 (2005).</li><li>Courret, N., Lang, T., Milon, G., Antoine, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intradermal+inoculations+of+low+doses+of+Leishmania+major+and+Leishmania+amazonensis+metacyclic+promastigotes+induce+different+immunoparasitic+processes+and+status+of+protection+in+BALB/c+mice.">Intradermal inoculations of low doses of Leishmania major and Leishmania amazonensis metacyclic promastigotes induce different immunoparasitic processes and status of protection in BALB/c mice.</a> International Journal for Parasitology. 33 (12), 1373-1383 (2003).</li><li>Gutierrez, M. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+induction+favours+the+generation+and+maturation+of+the+Coxiella-replicative+vacuoles.">Autophagy induction favours the generation and maturation of the Coxiella-replicative vacuoles.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 7 (7), 981-993 (2005).</li><li>Dermine, J. F., Scianimanico, S., Prive, C., Descoteaux, A., Desjardins, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leishmania+promastigotes+require+lipophosphoglycan+to+actively+modulate+the+fusion+properties+of+phagosomes+at+an+early+step+of+phagocytosis.">Leishmania promastigotes require lipophosphoglycan to actively modulate the fusion properties of phagosomes at an early step of phagocytosis.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 2 (2), 115-126 (2000).</li><li>Desjardins, M., Descoteaux, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+phagolysosomal+biogenesis+by+the+Leishmania+lipophosphoglycan.">Inhibition of phagolysosomal biogenesis by the Leishmania lipophosphoglycan.</a> Journal of Experimental Medicine. 185 (12), 2061-2068 (1997).</li><li>Antoine, J. C., Prina, E., Lang, T., Courret, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+biogenesis+and+properties+of+the+parasitophorous+vacuoles+that+harbour+Leishmania+in+murine+macrophages.">The biogenesis and properties of the parasitophorous vacuoles that harbour Leishmania in murine macrophages.</a> Trends in Microbiology. 6 (10), 392-401 (1998).</li><li>Alexander, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+essential+role+for+IL-13+in+maintaining+a+non-healing+response+following+Leishmania+mexicana+infection.">An essential role for IL-13 in maintaining a non-healing response following Leishmania mexicana infection.</a> European Journal of Immunology. 32 (10), 2923-2933 (2002).</li><li>Aderem, A., Underhill, D. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+of+phagocytosis+in+macrophages.">Mechanisms of phagocytosis in macrophages.</a> Annual Review of Immunology. 17, 593-623 (1999).</li><li>Olivier, M., Gregory, D. J., Forget, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Subversion+mechanisms+by+which+Leishmania+parasites+can+escape+the+host+immune+response:+a+signaling+point+of+view.">Subversion mechanisms by which Leishmania parasites can escape the host immune response: a signaling point of view.</a> Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 18 (2), 293-305 (2005).</li><li>English, D., Andersen, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-step+separation+of+red+blood+cells.+Granulocytes+and+mononuclear+leukocytes+on+discontinuous+density+gradients+of+Ficoll-Hypaque.">Single-step separation of red blood cells. Granulocytes and mononuclear leukocytes on discontinuous density gradients of Ficoll-Hypaque.</a> Journal of Immunology Methods. 5 (3), 249-252 (1974).</li><li>Petersen, A. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=17-AAG+kills+intracellular+Leishmania+amazonensis+while+reducing+inflammatory+responses+in+infected+macrophages.">17-AAG kills intracellular Leishmania amazonensis while reducing inflammatory responses in infected macrophages.</a> PLoS One. 7 (11), 49496 (2012).</li><li>Maess, M. B., Wittig, B., Lorkowski, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Highly+efficient+transfection+of+human+THP-1+macrophages+by+nucleofection.">Highly efficient transfection of human THP-1 macrophages by nucleofection.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (91), e51960 (2014).</li><li>Berges, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=End-binding+1+protein+overexpression+correlates+with+glioblastoma+progression+and+sensitizes+to+Vinca-alkaloids+in+vitro+and+in+vivo.">End-binding 1 protein overexpression correlates with glioblastoma progression and sensitizes to Vinca-alkaloids in vitro and in vivo.</a> Oncotarget. 5 (24), 12769-12787 (2014).</li><li>Franco, L. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Ubiquitin+Ligase+Smurf1+Functions+in+Selective+Autophagy+of+Mycobacterium+tuberculosis+and+Anti-tuberculous+Host+Defense.">The Ubiquitin Ligase Smurf1 Functions in Selective Autophagy of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Anti-tuberculous Host Defense.</a> Cell Host &amp; Microbe. 22 (3), 421-423 (2017).</li><li>Corbett-Nelson, E. F., Mason, D., Marshall, J. G., Collette, Y., Grinstein, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling-dependent+immobilization+of+acylated+proteins+in+the+inner+monolayer+of+the+plasma+membrane.">Signaling-dependent immobilization of acylated proteins in the inner monolayer of the plasma membrane.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 174 (2), 255-265 (2006).</li><li>Yeung, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Receptor+activation+alters+inner+surface+potential+during+phagocytosis.">Receptor activation alters inner surface potential during phagocytosis.</a> Science. 313 (5785), 347-351 (2006).</li><li>Romano, P. S., Gutierrez, M. G., Beron, W., Rabinovitch, M., Colombo, M. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+autophagic+pathway+is+actively+modulated+by+phase+II+Coxiella+burnetii+to+efficiently+replicate+in+the+host+cell.">The autophagic pathway is actively modulated by phase II Coxiella burnetii to efficiently replicate in the host cell.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 9 (4), 891-909 (2007).</li><li>Vieira, O. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modulation+of+Rab5+and+Rab7+recruitment+to+phagosomes+by+phosphatidylinositol+3-kinase.">Modulation of Rab5 and Rab7 recruitment to phagosomes by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase.</a> Molecular and Cellular Biology. 23 (7), 2501-2514 (2003).</li><li>Roberts, R. L., Barbieri, M. A., Ullrich, J., Stahl, P. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+of+rab5+activation+in+endocytosis+and+phagocytosis.">Dynamics of rab5 activation in endocytosis and phagocytosis.</a> Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 68 (5), 627-632 (2000).</li><li>Vitelli, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+the+small+GTPase+Rab7+in+the+late+endocytic+pathway.">Role of the small GTPase Rab7 in the late endocytic pathway.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 272 (7), 4391-4397 (1997).</li><li>Matte, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leishmania+major+Promastigotes+Evade+LC3-Associated+Phagocytosis+through+the+Action+of+GP63.">Leishmania major Promastigotes Evade LC3-Associated Phagocytosis through the Action of GP63.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 12 (6), 1005690 (2016).</li><li>Dias, B. R. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagic+Induction+Greatly+Enhances+Leishmania+major+Intracellular+Survival+Compared+to+Leishmania+amazonensis+in+CBA/j-Infected+Macrophages.">Autophagic Induction Greatly Enhances Leishmania major Intracellular Survival Compared to Leishmania amazonensis in CBA/j-Infected Macrophages.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 9, 1890 (2018).</li><li>Babcock, G. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitation+of+phagocytosis+by+confocal+microscopy.">Quantitation of phagocytosis by confocal microscopy.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 307, 319-328 (1999).</li><li>Sanderson, M. J., Smith, I., Parker, I., Bootman, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescence+microscopy.">Fluorescence microscopy.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2014 (10), 071795 (2014).</li><li>Lennartz, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phospholipases+and+phagocytosis:+the+role+of+phospholipid-derived+second+messengers+in+phagocytosis.">Phospholipases and phagocytosis: the role of phospholipid-derived second messengers in phagocytosis.</a> International Journal of Biochemistry &amp; Cell Biology. 31 (3-4), 415-430 (1999).</li><li>Rashidfarrokhi, A., Richina, V., Tafesse, F. 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Leishmania-macrophage interaction is a complex process and involves several steps that can influence disease development5. To better understand the mechanisms involved in the interaction of unopsonized Leishmania and host cells, we have described a protocol that employs confocal fluorescence microscopy to assess phagocytosis from early to late stages of Leishmania infection. The use of fluorescence techniques involving two or more fluorophores to investigate cell biology...

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania, resulting in a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations in the vertebrate host, including cutaneous leishmaniasis, mucocutaneous leishmaniasis and visceral leishmaniasis1.&#160;The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over one billion people are at risk, with more than one million new cases reported per year2.
Leishmania spp. are obligate intracellular protozoans that survive inside host cells, including monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells3. Leishmania-macrophage interaction is a complex process that involves multiple host cell receptors and parasite ligands either through direct interaction or by opsonization involving complement receptors4,5. Classical surface receptors, such as CR1, CR3, mannose-fucose, fibronectin, toll-like and scavenger receptors, mediate parasite attachment to macrophages6,7,8. These receptors recognize molecules on the surface of Leishmania, including the 63 kDa glycoprotein (gp63) and glycolipid lipophosphoglycan (LPG)9. These are the most abundant molecules on the surface of promastigotes and play an essential role in the subversion of host immune response, favoring the establishment of parasite infection in mammalian cells10. After parasite surface ligands bind to macrophage receptors, F-actin accumulates on mammalian cell surfaces, surrounding parasites as they are phagocytosed. Subsequently, this leads to the formation of a parasite-induced compartment termed parasitophorous vacuole (PV), which presents phagolysosomal features11. Once inside these phagolysosomes, parasites undergo several alterations essential to survival and multiplication3.
The biogenesis of PVs is a highly regulated membrane trafficking process critical to the intracellular survival of this pathogen12. The formation of this compartment results from sequential fusion events between phagosomes and compartments of the host endocytic pathway. Classical cell biology studies have revealed that the maturation of PVs involves the acquisition of monomeric G protein Rab 5 and Rab 7 proteins, which are mainly associated with early and late endosome maturation, respectively13. In addition, these compartments acquire lysosome-associated membrane proteins 1 and 2 (LAMP 1, LAMP 2), the principal protein constituents of the lysosomal membrane and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3), an autophagosome marker14. Despite apparent similarities, the kinetics of PV formation15,16 and the morphology of these compartments vary depending on Leishmania species. For example, infection caused by L. mexicana or L. amazonensis induces the formation of large compartments containing a great number of parasites17. By contrast, other species, such as L. braziliensis and L. infantum, form smaller vacuoles that normally contain only one or two parasites in each vacuole18.
Despite this knowledge surrounding host cell-Leishmania interaction, the initial events triggered by contact between host receptors and parasite ligands have not been fully elucidated. These events are known to be determinants of the outcome of parasite infection and are dependent on parasite species, the type of host cell receptors recruited to recognize parasites and the activation of macrophage signaling pathways19,20. Therefore, it is essential to identify the molecules involved in the biogenesis of Leishmania-induced PVs and determine the role(s) played by these molecules in infection establishment and outcome. Here, we describe a method of monitoring early events occurring during the phagocytosis of Leishmania, including binding, internalization, phagosome formation and maturation. This work could aid in clarifying the participation of PLC, Akt, Rab5, Rab7 and LC3 in the formation of PVs induced by different Leishmania species. Importantly, this protocol can be used to investigate the participation of other proteins involved in PV maturation. Future studies will expand the knowledge surrounding mechanisms involved in Leishmania-host cell interaction and contribute to the design of novel chemotherapeutic strategies.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>21985023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AlexaFluor 488-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Tem varios no site</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-LC3 antibody</td>
			<td>Novus Biologicals</td>
			<td>NB600-1384</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CellStripper</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-056-CI</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CellTracker Red (CMTPX) Dye</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C34552</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centr&#237;fuga</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ciprofloxacin</td>
			<td>Isofarma</td>
			<td>X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CO2 incubator</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal fluorescence microscope (Leica SP8)</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>Leica SP8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>10270106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence microscope (Olympus Lx73)</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>Olympus Lx73</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gentamicin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15750045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamine</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>35050-061</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES (N- 2-hydroxyethyl piperazine-N&#8217;-2-ethane-sulfonic acid)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Histopaque</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>10771</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M-CSF</td>
			<td>Peprotech</td>
			<td>300-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NH4Cl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A9434</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal goat serum</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>NS02L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nucleofector 2b Device</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>AAB-1001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nucleofector solution</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>VPA-1007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>158127</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phalloidin</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A12379</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P1585</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffer solution (PBS)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10010023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ProLong Gold Antifade kit</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>P36931</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI) 1640 medium</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11875-093</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Saponin</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Schneider&#39;s Insect medium</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S0146</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyruvate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S8636</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

investigating the phagocytosis of leishmania using confocal microscopy

Phagocytosis is an orchestrated process that involves distinct steps: recognition, binding, and internalization. Professional phagocytes take up Leishmania parasites by phagocytosis, consisting of recognizing ligands on parasite surfaces by multiple host cell receptors. Binding of Leishmania to macrophage membranes occurs through complement receptor type 1 (CR1) and complement receptor type 3 (CR3) and Pattern Recognition Receptors. Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) and 63 kDa glycoprotein (gp63) are the main ligands involved in macrophage-Leishmania interactions. Following the initial recognition of parasite ligands by host cell receptors, parasites become internalized, survive, and multiply within parasitophorous vacuoles. The maturation process of Leishmania-induced vacuoles involves the acquisition of molecules from intracellular vesicles, including monomeric G protein Rab 5 and Rab 7, lysosomal associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1), lysosomal associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP-2), and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3).
Here, we describe methods to evaluate the early events occurring during Leishmania interaction with the host cells using confocal microscopy, including (i) binding (ii) internalization, and (iii) phagosome maturation. By adding to the body of knowledge surrounding these determinants of infection outcome, we hope to improve the understanding of the pathogenesis of Leishmania infection and support the eventual search for novel chemotherapeutic targets.

This report aims to evaluate the early events occurring during the phagocytosis of L. braziliensis isolated from patients presenting L. braziliensis-LCL or L. braziliensis-DL form of CL. Using confocal microscopy, we investigated the main events associated with parasites&#39; phagocytosis: binding, internalization, and phagosome maturation. We first evaluated the L. braziliensis-LCL or L. braziliensis-DL binding and phagocytosis by human monocyte-derived macrophages. The data ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating the Phagocytosis of Leishmania using Confocal Microscopy at JoVE.com

Investigating the Phagocytosis of Leishmania using Confocal Microscopy

The mechanism associated with phagocytosis in Leishmania infection remains poorly understood. Here, we describe methods to evaluate the early events occurring during Leishmania interaction with the host cells.

Investigating the Phagocytosis of Leishmania using Confocal Microscopy

Phagocytosis is an orchestrated process that involves distinct steps: recognition, binding, and internalization. Professional phagocytes take up ...

The mechanism associated with phagocytosis in Leishmania infection remain poorly understood. Here we describe methods to evaluate the early states of curing during Leishmania interaction to the host cells. This technique presents as the main advantage, allowing the study of different states of Leishmania phagocytosis and the participation of several proteins.It is worth noting that this technique can also be extended to other types of studies, including infection by bacteria, yeasts, or be it engulfment by other types of cells. People trying this technique should take care of the exposure time of the cells to the Nucleofector solution. In addition, we suggest start testing transfection using a maximum of two plasmids.Demonstrating the procedure will be Amanda Reboucas, a PhD student from our laboratory. To begin with, seed 0.2 million THP-1 cells, or human monocyte-derived macrophages in 500 microliters RPMI per well on a 24 well plate with 13 millimeter glass coverslips. Incubate for 24 hours at 37 degrees Celsius under 5%carbon dioxide, wash cells twice with 0.9%saline and incubate the cells in a Complete RPMI Medium.Add stationary phase Leishmania species to the cells at a 10 parasite is to one host cell ratio, and then, centrifuge at 720 times g for 10 minutes at four degrees Celsius. After incubating the cells at four degrees Celsius for five minutes, wash the cells twice with 0.9%saline solution to remove any non-internalized promastigotes. Incubate the cells in supplemented RPMI Medium at 37 degrees Celsius for one hour, and then, fix the cells with 4%PFA for 15 minutes.Next, mount coverslips using preferred mounting media. Then, count at least 400 cells in random fields under a fluorescence microscope. To investigate the Leishmania-induced PV biogenesis, start transfecting THP-1 cells with plasmid by seeding 15 million THP-1 cells in 75 square centimeters tissue culture flasks containing 10 milliliters of Complete RPMI Medium supplemented with 100 nanograms per milliliter PMA, and 50 micromolar to mercaptoethanol for 48 hours.Then, wash the cells once in 0.9%saline solution and detach the cells using a non-enzymatic cell dissociation solution. Then, centrifuge at 250 times g for five minutes at room temperature. Next, resuspend the THP-1 cells in one milliliter of RPMI Medium and perform counts in a Neubauer chamber.Centrifuge the cells again at 250 times g for 10 minutes at room temperature and discard the supernatant. Resuspend 2 million cells in 100 microliters of Nucleofector solution and incubate with 0.5 micrograms of the plasmid coating for the protein of interest, tagged with a fluorescent protein. Transfer the suspension containing THP-1 cells and nucleic acid to the Nucleofector cuvette.Then, transfect the cells using Nucleofector program Y one. Recover the transfected cells and seed in 500 microliters of RPMI Medium on 24 well plates with 13 millimeter glass coverslips. Incubate the cells and Complete RPMI Medium at 37 degrees Celsius for 0.5, 2, 4, 6, 12, and 24 hour.Leave the 13 millimeter glass coverslips at room temperature and protect them from the light at least 30 minutes before the acquisition. Clean the coverslips with absorbent tissue. Next, add a drop of immersion oil to the objective, and then add the slide.Move the objective up until the oil touches the slide. Observe and adjust the focus on the microscope and choose option 63x objective with oil. Open the LIQA program and adjust the lasers in the 488, 552, and 405 wavelengths.Select the image resolution as 1024 x 1024. After clicking on the live button, set the Z-stack and press the begin option. Wait for the image acquisition and then select the option, maximum projection, in the tools.Save the experiment, and export the TIFF format images to a computer. The results showed that both Leishmania Braziliensis LCL, and Leishmania Braziliensis DL, similarly bind to macrophages. Also, no differences were observed regarding Leishmania Braziliensis LCL and Leishmania Braziliensis DL phagocytosis by host cells.The recruitment of LC3 to the parasitophorous vacuole, or PV's, induced by Leishmania Braziliensis LCL or Leishmania Braziliensis DL, was compared in infected cells. After four hours of infection, similar percentages of LC3-decorated PV's in Leishmania Braziliensis LCL and Leishmania Braziliensis DL infected macrophages were observed. Thus, results showed that Leishmania Braziliensis LCL and Leishmania Braziliensis DL similarly interact with macrophages during binding, phagocytosis, and biogenesis of PV's concerning the LC3 recruitment.Representative microscopic images demonstrated efficient transfection of THP-1 cells with PLC-GFP, Rab5-GFP, Rab7-GFP plasmids. People trying this protocol must pay attention to temperature incubation and protect the microscope samples from the light, all the types. Modulating the expression of the identified proteins precipitating Leishmania phagocytosis will demonstrate the importance of those proteins in Leishmania infection outcome.We can extend this technique toward different types of pathology studies and mechanisms associated with parasite establishment and target identification for the development of therapeutic strategies.

investigating-the-phagocytosis-of-leishmania-using-confocal-microscopy

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

In vivo Imaging of Transgenic Leishmania Parasites in a Live Host

Distinct species of Leishmania, a protozoan parasite of the family Trypanosomatidae, typically cause different human disease manifestations. The most common forms of disease are visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). Mouse models of leishmaniasis are widely used, but quantification of parasite burdens during murine disease requires mice to be euthanized at various times after infection. Parasite loads are then measured either by microscopy, limiting dilution assay, or qPCR amplification of parasite DNA. The in vivo imaging system (IVIS) has an integrated software package that allows the detection of a bioluminescent signal associated with cells in living organisms. Both to minimize animal usage and to follow infection longitudinally in individuals, in vivo models for imaging Leishmania spp. causing VL or CL were established. Parasites were engineered to express luciferase, and these were introduced into mice either intradermally or intravenously. Quantitative measurements of the luciferase driving bioluminescence of the transgenic Leishmania parasites within the mouse were made using IVIS. Individual mice can be imaged multiple times during longitudinal studies, allowing us to assess the inter-animal variation in the initial experimental parasite inocula, and to assess the multiplication of parasites in mouse tissues. Parasites are detected with high sensitivity in cutaneous locations. Although it is very likely that the signal (photons/second/parasite) is lower in deeper visceral organs than the skin, but quantitative comparisons of signals in superficial versus deep sites have not been done. It is possible that parasite numbers between body sites cannot be directly compared, although parasite loads in the same tissues can be compared between mice. Examples of one visceralizing species (L. infantum chagasi) and one species causing cutaneous leishmaniasis (L. mexicana) are shown. The IVIS procedure can be used for monitoring and analyzing small animal models of a wide variety of Leishmania species causing the different forms of human leishmaniasis.

In vivo Imaging of Transgenic Leishmania Parasites in a Live Host

An in vivo imaging system is used to generate quantitative measurements of murine infection with the Trypanosomatid protozoan Leishmania. This is a non-invasive and non-lethal method for detecting parasites expressing luciferase within many tissues throughout the course of chronic Leishmania spp. infection.

Distinct species of Leishmania, a protozoan parasite of the family Trypanosomatidae, typically cause different human disease manifestations. The most ...

Visualizing Cell-to-cell Transfer of HIV using Fluorescent Clones of HIV and Live Confocal Microscopy

By fusing the green fluorescent protein to their favorite proteins, biologists now have the ability to study living complex cellular processes using fluorescence video microscopy. To track the movements of the human immunodeficiency virus core protein during cell-to-cell transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, we have GFP-tagged the Gag protein in the context of an infectious molecular clone of HIV, called HIV Gag-iGFP. We study this viral clone using video confocal microscopy. In the following visualized experiment, we transfect a human T cell line with HIV Gag-iGFP, and we use fluorescently labeled uninfected CD4+ T cells to serve as target cells for the virus. Using the different fluorescent labels we can readily follow viral production and transport across intercellular structures called virological synapses. Simple gas permeable imaging chambers allow us to observe synapses with live confocal microscopy from minutes to days. These approaches can be used to track viral proteins as they move in from one cell to the next.

This visualized experiment is a guide for utilizing a fluorescent molecular clone of HIV for live confocal imaging experiments.

By fusing the green fluorescent protein to their favorite proteins, biologists now have the ability to study living complex cellular processes using ...

Direct Observation of Phagocytosis and NET-formation by Neutrophils in Infected Lungs using 2-photon Microscopy

After the gastrointestinal tract, the lung is the second largest surface for interaction between the vertebrate body and the 
environment. Here, an effective gas exchange must be maintained, while at the same time avoiding infection by the multiple pathogens that are inhaled 
during normal breathing. To achieve this, a superb set of defense strategies combining humoral and cellular immune mechanisms exists. One of the most 
effective measures for acute defense of the lung is the recruitment of neutrophils, which either phagocytose the inhaled pathogens or kill them by 
releasing cytotoxic chemicals. A recent addition to the arsenal of neutrophils is their explosive release of extracellular DNA-NETs by which bacteria 
or fungi can be caught or inactivated even after the NET releasing cells have died. We present here a method that allows one to directly observe neutrophils, 
migrating within a recently infected lung, phagocytosing fungal pathogens as well as visualize the extensive NETs that they have produced throughout the 
infected tissue. The method describes the preparation of thick viable lung slices 7 hours after intratracheal infection of mice with conidia of the mold 
Aspergillus fumigatus and their examination by multicolor time-lapse 2-photon microscopy. This approach allows one to directly investigate antifungal 
defense in native lung tissue and thus opens a new avenue for the detailed investigation of pulmonary immunity.

We show, how to use 2-photon microscopy for the observation of the dynamics of neutrophil granulocytes in infected lungs while they phagocytose pathogens or produce neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).

After the gastrointestinal tract, the lung is the second largest surface for interaction between the vertebrate body and the 
environment. Here, an ...

Intravital Microscopy of the Spleen: Quantitative Analysis of Parasite Mobility and Blood Flow

The advent of intravital microscopy in experimental rodent malaria models has allowed major advances to the knowledge of parasite-host interactions 1,2. Thus, in vivo imaging of malaria parasites during pre-erythrocytic stages have revealed the active entrance of parasites into skin lymph nodes 3, the complete development of the parasite in the skin 4, and the formation of a hepatocyte-derived merosome to assure migration and release of merozoites into the blood stream 5. Moreover, the development of individual parasites in erythrocytes has been recently documented using 4D imaging and challenged our current view on protein export in malaria 6. Thus, intravital imaging has radically changed our view on key events in Plasmodium development. Unfortunately, studies of the dynamic passage of malaria parasites through the spleen, a major lymphoid organ exquisitely adapted to clear infected red blood cells are lacking due to technical constraints.
Using the murine model of malaria Plasmodium yoelii in Balb/c mice, we have implemented intravital imaging of the spleen and reported a differential remodeling of it and adherence of parasitized red blood cells (pRBCs) to barrier cells of fibroblastic origin in the red pulp during infection with the non-lethal parasite line P.yoelii 17X as opposed to infections with the P.yoelii 17XL lethal parasite line 7. To reach these conclusions, a specific methodology using ImageJ free software was developed to enable characterization of the fast three-dimensional movement of single-pRBCs. Results obtained with this protocol allow determining velocity, directionality and residence time of parasites in the spleen, all parameters addressing adherence in vivo. In addition, we report the methodology for blood flow quantification using intravital microscopy and the use of different colouring agents to gain insight into the complex microcirculatory structure of the spleen. 
Ethics statement
All the animal studies were performed at the animal facilities of University of Barcelona in accordance with guidelines and protocols approved by the Ethics Committee for Animal Experimentation of the University of Barcelona CEEA-UB (Protocol No DMAH: 5429). Female Balb/c mice of 6-8 weeks of age were obtained from Charles River Laboratories.

We show the method for performing intravital microscopy of the spleen using GFP transgenic malaria parasites and the quantification of parasite mobility and blood flow within this organ.

The advent of intravital microscopy in experimental rodent malaria models has allowed major advances to the knowledge of parasite-host interactions 1,2. ...

Live-cell Video Microscopy of Fungal Pathogen Phagocytosis

Phagocytic clearance of fungal pathogens, and microorganisms more generally, may be considered to consist of four distinct stages: (i) migration of phagocytes to the site where pathogens are located; (ii) recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs); (iii) engulfment of microorganisms bound to the phagocyte cell membrane, and (iv) processing of engulfed cells within maturing phagosomes and digestion of the ingested particle. Studies that assess phagocytosis in its entirety are informative1, 2, 3, 4, 5 but are limited in that they do not normally break the process down into migration, engulfment and phagosome maturation, which may be affected differentially. Furthermore, such studies assess uptake as a single event, rather than as a continuous dynamic process. We have recently developed advanced live-cell imaging technologies, and have combined these with genetic functional analysis of both pathogen and host cells to create a cross-disciplinary platform for the analysis of innate immune cell function and fungal pathogenesis. These studies have revealed novel aspects of phagocytosis that could only be observed using systematic temporal analysis of the molecular and cellular interactions between human phagocytes and fungal pathogens and infectious microorganisms more generally. For example, we have begun to define the following: (a) the components of the cell surface required for each stage of the process of recognition, engulfment and killing of fungal cells1, 6, 7, 8; (b) how surface geometry influences the efficiency of macrophage uptake and killing of yeast and hyphal cells7; and (c) how engulfment leads to alteration of the cell cycle and behavior of macrophages 9, 10.
In contrast to single time point snapshots, live-cell video microscopy enables a wide variety of host cells and pathogens to be studied as continuous sequences over lengthy time periods, providing spatial and temporal information on a broad range of dynamic processes, including cell migration, replication and vesicular trafficking. Here we describe in detail how to prepare host and fungal cells, and to conduct the video microscopy experiments. These methods can provide a user-guide for future studies with other phagocytes and microorganisms.

We describe methods for live-cell video microscopy of Candida albicans phagocytosis by macrophages. These methods enable stage-specific analysis of macrophage migration, recognition, engulfment and phagosome maturation and reveal novel aspects of phagocytosis.

Phagocytic clearance of fungal pathogens, and microorganisms more generally, may be considered to consist of four distinct stages: (i) migration of ...

Investigating the Effects of Probiotics on Pneumococcal Colonization Using an In Vitro Adherence Assay

Adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) to the epithelial lining of the nasopharynx can result in colonization and is considered a prerequisite for pneumococcal infections such as pneumonia and otitis media. In vitro adherence assays can be used to study the attachment of pneumococci to epithelial cell monolayers and to investigate potential interventions, such as the use of probiotics, to inhibit pneumococcal&#160;colonization.&#160;The protocol described here is used to investigate the effects of the probiotic Streptococcus salivarius on the adherence of pneumococci to the human epithelial cell line CCL-23 (sometimes referred to as HEp-2 cells). The assay involves three main steps: 1) preparation of epithelial and bacterial cells, 2) addition of bacteria to epithelial cell monolayers, and 3) detection of adherent pneumococci by viable counts (serial dilution and plating) or quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). This technique is relatively straightforward and does not require specialized equipment other than a tissue culture setup. The assay can be used to test other probiotic species and/or potential inhibitors of pneumococcal colonization and can be easily modified to address other scientific questions regarding pneumococcal adherence and invasion.

Investigating the Effects of Probiotics on Pneumococcal Colonization Using an In Vitro Adherence Assay

In vitro adherence assays can be used to study the attachment of Streptococcus pneumoniae to epithelial cell monolayers and to investigate potential interventions such as the use of probiotics for inhibiting pneumococcal colonization.

Adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) to the epithelial lining of the nasopharynx can result in colonization and is considered a ...

Assessing Anti-fungal Activity of Isolated Alveolar Macrophages by Confocal Microscopy

The lung is an interface where host cells are routinely exposed to microbes and microbial products. Alveolar macrophages are the first-line phagocytic cells that encounter inhaled fungi and other microbes. Macrophages and other immune cells recognize Aspergillus motifs by pathogen recognition receptors and initiate downstream inflammatory responses. The phagocyte NADPH oxidase generates reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs) and is critical for host defense. Although NADPH oxidase is critical for neutrophil-mediated host defense1-3, the importance of NADPH oxidase in macrophages is not well defined. The goal of this study was to delineate the specific role of NADPH oxidase in macrophages in mediating host defense against A. fumigatus. We found that NADPH oxidase in alveolar macrophages controls the growth of phagocytosed A. fumigatus spores4. Here, we describe a method for assessing the ability of mouse alveolar macrophages (AMs) to control the growth of phagocytosed Aspergillus spores (conidia). Alveolar macrophages are stained in vivo and ten days later isolated from mice by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). Macrophages are plated onto glass coverslips, then seeded with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing A. fumigatus spores. At specified times, cells are fixed and the number of intact macrophages with phagocytosed spores is assessed by confocal microscopy.

A method to evaluate the ability of isolated mouse alveolar macrophages to control the growth of phagocytosed Aspergillus spores by confocal microscopy.

The lung is an interface where host cells are routinely exposed to microbes and microbial products. Alveolar macrophages are the first-line phagocytic ...

Intravital Microscopy Imaging of the Liver following Leishmania Infection: An Assessment of Hepatic Hemodynamics

Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful optical imaging technique that has made possible the visualization, monitoring and quantification of various biological events in real time and in live animals. This technology has greatly advanced our understanding of physiological processes and pathogen-mediated phenomena in specific organs.
In this study, IVM is applied to the mouse liver and protocols are designed to image in vivo the circulatory system of the liver and measure red blood cell (RBC) velocity in individual hepatic vessels. To visualize the different vessel subtypes that characterize the hepatic organ and perform blood flow speed measurements, C57Bl/6 mice are intravenously injected with a fluorescent plasma reagent that labels the liver-associated vasculature. IVM enables in vivo, real time, measurement of RBC velocity in a specific vessel of interest. Establishing this methodology will make it possible to investigate liver hemodynamics under physiological and pathological conditions. Ultimately, this imaging-based methodology will be important for studying the influence of L. donovani infection&#160;on hepatic hemodynamics.
This method can be applied to other infectious models and mouse organs and might be further extended to pre-clinical testing of a drug&#8217;s effect on inflammation by quantifying its effect on blood flow.

Intravital Microscopy Imaging of the Liver following Leishmania Infection: An Assessment of Hepatic Hemodynamics

This article reports on a detailed method for the dynamic measurement and quantification of blood flow velocity within individual blood vessels of the mouse liver vasculature using intravital microscopy imaging in combination with a specific methodology for image acquisition and analysis.

Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful optical imaging technique that has made possible the visualization, monitoring and quantification of various ...

A New Method for Qualitative Multi-scale Analysis of Bacterial Biofilms on Filamentous Fungal Colonies Using Confocal and Electron Microscopy

Bacterial biofilms frequently form on fungal surfaces and can be involved in numerous bacterial-fungal interaction processes, such as metabolic cooperation, competition, or predation. The study of biofilms is important in many biological fields, including environmental science, food production, and medicine. However, few studies have focused on such bacterial biofilms, partially due to the difficulty of investigating them. Most of the methods for qualitative and quantitative biofilm analyses described in the literature are only suitable for biofilms forming on abiotic surfaces or on homogeneous and thin biotic surfaces, such as a monolayer of epithelial cells.
While laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) is often used to analyze in situ and in vivo biofilms, this technology becomes very challenging when applied to bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae, due to the thickness and the three dimensions of the hyphal networks. To overcome this shortcoming, we developed a protocol combining microscopy with a method to limit the accumulation of hyphal layers in fungal colonies. Using this method, we were able to investigate the development of bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae at multiple scales using both LSCM and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This report describes the protocol, including microorganism cultures, bacterial biofilm formation conditions, biofilm staining, and LSCM and SEM visualizations.

This protocol describes a new method to grow and qualitatively analyze bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae by confocal and electron microscopy.

Bacterial biofilms frequently form on fungal surfaces and can be involved in numerous bacterial-fungal interaction processes, such as metabolic ...

Visualizing Macrophage Extracellular Traps Using Confocal Microscopy

A primary method used to define the presence of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is confocal microscopy. We have modified established confocal microscopy methods to visualize macrophage extracellular traps (METs). These extracellular traps are defined by the presence of extracellular chromatin with co-expression of other components such as granule proteases, citrullinated histones, and peptidyl arginase deiminase (PAD). The expression of METs is generally measured after exposure to a stimulus and compared to un-stimulated samples. Samples are also included for background and isotype control. Cells are analyzed using well-defined image analysis software. Confocal microscopy may be used to define the presence of METs both in vitro and in vivo in lung tissue.

Macrophage extracellular traps are a newly described entity. This article will concentrate on confocal microscopy methods and how they are visualized in vitro and in vivo from lung samples.

A primary method used to define the presence of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) is confocal microscopy. We have modified established confocal ...