This work was supported by a Postdoctoral Fellowship grant from the Icelandic Research Fund (217796-052) (A.G.L.) and the Helga J&#243;nsd&#243;ttir and Sigurlidi Kristj&#225;nsson Memorial Fund (A.G.L and T.E.). The authors thank Prof. Eir&#237;kur Steingr&#237;msson for providing the mice.

All experiments were approved by the Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority (MAST license No. 2108002). All animal studies were conducted according to the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) Statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research. Male and female C57BL/6J and Mitfmi-vga9/+ mice were used in this study. C57BL/6J mice (n = 7) were used as a control. The wild types were commercially obtained (see Table of Materials), but all mutant mic...

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Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+retina+to+study+dementia+and+stroke.">Imaging retina to study dementia and stroke.</a> Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 57, 89-107 (2017).</li><li>Selvam, S., Kumar, T., Fruttiger, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retinal+vasculature+development+in+health+and+disease.">Retinal vasculature development in health and disease.</a> Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 63, 1-19 (2018).</li><li>Ma, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+analysis+of+retinal+vessel+attenuation+in+eyes+with+retinitis+pigmentosa.">Quantitative analysis of retinal vessel attenuation in eyes with retinitis pigmentosa.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 53 (7), 4306-4314 (2012).</li><li>Eysteinsson, T., Hardarson, S. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Melanocytes+and+the+microphthalmia+transcription+factor+network.">Melanocytes and the microphthalmia transcription factor network.</a> Annual Review of Genetics. 38, 365-411 (2004).</li><li>Arnheiter, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+discovery+of+the+microphthalmia+locus+and+its+gene.">The discovery of the microphthalmia locus and its gene.</a> Mitf. Pigment Cell &amp; Melanoma Research. 23 (6), 729-735 (2010).</li><li>Garcia-Llorca, A., Aspelund, S. G., Ogmundsdottir, M. H., Steingrimsson, E., Eysteinsson, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+microphthalmia-associated+transcription+factor+(Mitf)+gene+and+its+role+in+regulating+eye+function.">The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) gene and its role in regulating eye function.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (1), 15386 (2019).</li><li>Bharti, K., Liu, W., Csermely, T., Bertuzzi, S., Arnheiter, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alternative+promoter+use+in+eye+development:+the+complex+role+and+regulation+of+the+transcription+factor+MITF.">Alternative promoter use in eye development: the complex role and regulation of the transcription factor MITF.</a> Development. 135 (6), 1169-1178 (2008).</li><li>Lu, S. Y., Li, M., Lin, Y. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mitf+induction+by+RANKL+is+critical+for+osteoclastogenesis.">Mitf induction by RANKL is critical for osteoclastogenesis.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 21 (10), 1763-1771 (2010).</li><li>Pillaiyar, T., Manickam, M., Jung, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+development+of+signaling+pathways+inhibitors+of+melanogenesis.">Recent development of signaling pathways inhibitors of melanogenesis.</a> Cellular Signalling. 40, 99-115 (2017).</li><li>Danielsson, S. B., Garcia-Llorca, A., Reynisson, H., Eysteinsson, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mouse+microphthalmia-associated+transcription+factor+(Mitf)+mutations+affect+the+structure+of+the+retinal+vasculature.">Mouse microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) mutations affect the structure of the retinal vasculature.</a> Acta Ophthalmologica. 100 (8), 911-918 (2022).</li><li>Burns, S. A., Elsner, A. E., Gast, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+the+retinal+vasculature.">Imaging the retinal vasculature.</a> Annual Review of Vision Science. 7, 129-153 (2021).</li><li>Wei, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+vessel+diameter+quantification+and+vessel+tracing+for+OCT+angiography.">Automated vessel diameter quantification and vessel tracing for OCT angiography.</a> Journal of Biophotonics. 13 (12), e202000248 (2020).</li><li>Salas, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Compact+akinetic+swept+source+optical+coherence+tomography+angiography+at+1060+nm+supporting+a+wide+field+of+view+and+adaptive+optics+imaging+modes+of+the+posterior+eye.">Compact akinetic swept source optical coherence tomography angiography at 1060 nm supporting a wide field of view and adaptive optics imaging modes of the posterior eye.</a> Biomedical Optics Express. 9 (4), 1871-1892 (2018).</li><li>Albanna, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-invasive+evaluation+of+neurovascular+coupling+in+the+murine+retina+by+dynamic+retinal+vessel+analysis.">Non-invasive evaluation of neurovascular coupling in the murine retina by dynamic retinal vessel analysis.</a> PLoS One. 13 (10), e0204689 (2018).</li><li>Moult, E. 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The present article is the first to present a method to analyze retinal vessel diameter and retinal vasculature from mouse FA images. Since only fundus imaging was utilized to capture images of the retinal vasculature, the method has several drawbacks, one of which is that one can only infer alterations in the superficial layers of that the retinal vasculature in the mice examined in this study; any differences in the deeper layers are yet unknown. 
A unique optical coherence tomography angiog...

Possibly the most researched vascular bed in the body is the retinal vasculature. With ever-improving technical sophistication, retinal vasculature is easily photographed in living patients and used in many research fields1. Additionally, the mouse retinal vasculature during development has proven to be a very effective model system for research into the fundamental biology of vascular growth. The primary purpose of the retinal vasculature is to provide the inner portion of the retina with metabolic support through a laminar capillary meshwork that permeates the neural tissue2. Nevertheless, the condition of the retina, and consequently any dysfunction or atrophy, can have significant effects on both the bifurcations of the retinal vasculature and the diameter of arteries, demonstrating an interplay between the retinal cells and the vasculature3,4. It is known that numerous eye conditions, including retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), diabetic retinopathy (DR), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), glaucoma, and corneal neovascularization, can result in abnormal ocular angiogenesis5. In the case of the retinal vasculature, mouse models of retinal degeneration often exhibit changes that are comparable to those seen in human vascular diseases6,7. The Myc supergene family of fundamental helix-loop-helix-zipper transcription factors includes the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) gene expressed in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)8,9,10.
Numerous organs, including the eye, ear, immune system, central nervous system, kidney, bone, and skin, have been demonstrated to be regulated by Mitf9,11,12,13. We have discovered that the structure and function of the RPE are affected in mice carrying various mutations in the Mitf gene, resulting in some cases of retinal degeneration and, ultimately, vision loss10. Recently, it has been shown that the number of vessels and vessel diameter differ significantly between Mitf mutant and wild-type mice14. Researchers and physicians can now precisely quantify the retinal vasculature in vivo due to retinal imaging developments. Since the 1800s, researchers and physicians have taken advantage of the benefit of visualizing the retinal vasculature, and fluorescein angiography (FA) has shown both retinal blood flow and degradation of the blood-retinal barrier15.
This article demonstrates how to analyze the retinal vessel diameter from mouse FA images with a custom-written code in MATLAB software.

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	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1% Tropicamide (Mydriacyl)</td>
			<td>Alcon Inc Laboratories</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Mydriatic agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2% Methocel</td>
			<td>OmniVision Eye Care</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Hydroxypropryl methylcellulose gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6J</td>
			<td>Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>000664</td>
			<td>Wild type mice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chanazine 2% (xylazine)</td>
			<td>Chanelle Animal Health UK</td>
			<td>BN I21322/I</td>
			<td>Anesthesia IP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excel for Microsoft 365</td>
			<td>Microsoft Inc</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Software package</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescein sodium salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>28803-100G</td>
			<td>Fluorescent angiography</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matlab 8.0</td>
			<td>The MathWorks, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Software package</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micron IV rodent fundus camera</td>
			<td>Phoenix-Micron</td>
			<td>40-2200</td>
			<td>Fundus photography</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylephrine 10% w/v</td>
			<td>Bausch &#38; Lomb</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Mydriatic agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline - 100 tablets</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>18912-014</td>
			<td>Dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sigmaplot 13</td>
			<td>Jandel Scientific Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Software package</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>S-Ketamine, 25 mg/mL</td>
			<td>Pfizer Inc.</td>
			<td>PAA104470</td>
			<td>Anesthesia IP</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

measuring retinal vessel diameter from mouse fluorescent angiography images

It is important to study the development of retinal vasculature in retinopathies in which abnormal vessel growth can ultimately lead to vision loss. Mutations in the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) gene show hypopigmentation, microphthalmia, retinal degeneration, and in some cases, blindness. In vivo imaging of the mouse retina by noninvasive means is vital for eye research. However, given its small size, mouse fundus imaging is difficult and might require specialized tools, maintenance, and training. In this study, we have developed a unique software enabling analysis of the retinal vessel diameter in mice with an automated program written in MATLAB. Fundus photographs were obtained with a commercial fundus camera system following an intraperitoneal injection of a fluorescein salt solution. Images were altered to enhance contrast, and the MATLAB program permitted extracting the mean vascular diameter automatically at a predefined distance from the optic disk. The vascular changes were examined in wild-type mice and mice with various mutations in the Mitf gene by analyzing the retinal vessel diameter. The custom-written MATLAB program developed here is practical, easy to use, and allows researchers to analyze the mean diameter and mean total diameter, as well as the number of vessels from the mouse retinal vasculature, conveniently and reliably.

Figure 1&#160;shows the process used to analyze the retinal vasculature, which is applied to mouse FFA images from all the tested mice. A radius that is twice as large as the optic disc is used to measure the intensity of pixels in a circular, clockwise direction from the optic disc&#39;s center. It marks pixels with a start or end point when it comes across points above and below a user-specified threshold, respectively. This is repeated 30 times, each time going a little bit further away f...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Retinal Vessel Diameter from Mouse Fluorescent Angiography Images at JoVE.com

Measuring Retinal Vessel Diameter from Mouse Fluorescent Angiography Images

Mouse retinal vasculature is particularly interesting in understanding the mechanisms of vascular pattern formation. This protocol automatically measures the diameter of mouse retinal vessels from fluorescent angiography fundus images at a fixed distance from the optic disk.

It is important to study the development of retinal vasculature in retinopathies in which abnormal vessel growth can ultimately lead to vision loss. ...

This protocol provides an easy and reliable method to automatically measure the diameter of retinal vessels in anesthetized mice due to gene mutations or retinal disease. The main advantage of this technique is that the custom written MATLAB program here is practical, easy to use, convenient and reliable. Retinal vessel diameter changes commonly occur in degenerative diseases like RP and other retinal vascular conditions.Mouse models offer insights into treatment efficacy and their impact on retinal vessels. The method may be potentially useful as quantifiable clinical markers following the progression of vascular disorders in the eye, and for monitoring potential treatments. To begin, prepare a syringe with fluorescein working solution and administer it intra-peritoneally to the anesthetized animal and apply a drop of 2%methyl cellulose gel to the corneal surface.Then place the animal on the positioning stage of the imaging system. Position the retinal imaging fundus camera lens to directly and gently touch the mouse's cornea, and slightly adjust the alignment to place the optic nerve head in the middle of the visual field. Then switch to the green fluorescence channel on the fundus camera and focus on the retinal vessels to take the images.Capture images at the desired time points following the fluorescein injection to determine the ideal time point and visualize the fluorescein fundus image. First, open the MATLAB program. Then download and save the fundus diameter.m code. Next, open the fundus image analysis folder and drag and drop the fundus diameter. m code into the analysis folder.Drag and drop an FFA image into the image analysis folder. In the MATLAB program, click twice on the code file to activate it. Select the Run option.A popup menu to select the image will appear. Select the image, and a popup menu for analysis parameters will appear on the screen. Set the analysis parameters in the popup menu and press OK.Select the center of the optic disc and then select the edge of the optic disc.The analysis will be performed in the background and the analysis results will appear on the screen. The table contains the values of mean, standard deviation, and standard error for each vessel. Save the table.And then save the figure with the mean thickness set. Open the analysis folder with the saved files and then open the saved figure. Open the saved table, copy the values, and paste them into an Excel file.After the fluorescein injection, images from a control mouse and an MITFMI-VGA9/mutant mouse were obtained, for which the shortest distance was measured from the optic disc center to the end points on the vessels in a clockwise direction. The mean vessel diameter was obtained as a function of the vessel number for the wild type and mutant mice. The most important things to remember are the positioning of the fundus camera and the centering of the optic disc in the fundus image.In addition to this technique, molecular techniques can be performed in order to explore new drugs, diagnose different vascular conditions in the eye, and to better understand the functioning of the retinal vasculature.

measuring-retinal-vessel-diameter-from-mouse-fluorescent-angiography

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351 Views.  University of Iceland. This protocol provides an easy and reliable method to automatically measure the diameter of retinal vessels in anesthetized mice due to gene mutations or retinal disease. The main advantage of this technique is that the custom written MATLAB program here is practical, easy to use, convenient and reliable. Retinal vessel diameter changes commonly occur in degenerative diseases like RP and other retinal vascular conditions.Mouse models offer insights into treatment efficacy and their imp...

Video: Measuring Retinal Vessel Diameter from Mouse Fluorescent Angiography Images

Mouse retinal vasculature is particularly interesting in understanding the mechanisms of vascular pattern formation. This protocol automatically measures the diameter of mouse retinal vessels from fluorescent angiography fundus images at a fixed distance from the optic disk.

an assay to detect protection of the retinal vasculature from diabetes-related death in mice

Author Spotlight: Understanding Retinal Vessel Resilience and Disease Progression

A protection assay was developed to monitor the retinal vasculature's resilience to death from diabetes/diabetic retinopathy-related insults such as oxidative stress and cytokines.

Novel Retina Protection Assay for Diabetic Retinopathy Pathogenesis Study

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retinal vascular reactivity as assessed by optical coherence tomography angiography

Retinal Vascular Reactivity as Assessed by Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography

This article describes a method for measuring retinal vasculature reactivity in vivo with human subjects using a gas breathing provocation technique to deliver vasoactive stimuli while acquiring retinal...

fluorescent dye labeling of erythrocytes and leukocytes for studying the flow dynamics in mouse retinal circulation

Fluorescent Dye Labeling of Erythrocytes and Leukocytes for Studying the Flow Dynamics in Mouse Retinal Circulation

Live-cell imaging of the labeled blood cells in ocular circulation can provide information about inflammation and ischemia in diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. A protocol to label blood cells and image the labeled cells in the retinal circulation is...

standardized rat coronary ring preparation and real-time recording of dynamic tension changes along vessel diameter

Standardized Rat Coronary Ring Preparation and Real-Time Recording of Dynamic Tension Changes Along Vessel Diameter

The present protocol describes the wire myograph technique for measuring vascular reactivity of the rat coronary...

alignment of visible-light optical coherence tomography fibergrams with confocal images of the same mouse retina

Author Spotlight: Advancements in In Vivo and Ex Vivo Retinal Imaging for Improved Glaucoma Diagnosis and Treatment 

The present protocol outlines the steps for aligning in vivo visible-light optical coherence tomography fibergraphy (vis-OCTF) images with ex vivo confocal images of the same mouse retina for the purpose of verifying the observed retinal ganglion cell axon bundle morphology in the in vivo images.

Mouse Retina OCT Fibergram Alignment with Confocal Images

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alignment of in vivo and ex vivo mouse retinal images

Alignment of In Vivo and Ex Vivo Mouse Retinal Images  

evaluation of capillary and other vessel contribution to macular perfusion density measured with optical coherence tomography angiography

Evaluation of Capillary and Other Vessel Contribution to Macular Perfusion Density Measured with Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography

We describe the evaluation of a coefficient of determination between vessel and perfusion density of the parafoveal superficial capillary plexus to identify the contribution of vessels larger than capillaries to perfusion...

assessing vessel perfusion via angiography: a technique to introduce contrast agent in descending aorta to visualize blood vessel perfusion in rabbit model

This video describes the technique for performing angiography by injecting a contrast agent into the descending aorta to visualize blood vessel perfusion in a rabbit model. This technique helps to understand the perfusion in blood vessels with blockages and after treatment during...

Assessing Vessel Perfusion via Angiography: A Technique to Introduce Contrast Agent in Descending Aorta to Visualize Blood Vessel Perfusion in Rabbit Model

retinal cup extraction from mouse: a surgical procedure to obtain intact retinal cup from mouse eye

This video describes a protocol to isolate the retinal cup without the outer covering layers from the eyeball of a mouse. The extracted retinal tissue can help study various metabolic pathways occurring in the retinal...

Retinal Cup Extraction from Mouse: A Surgical Procedure to Obtain Intact Retinal Cup from Mouse Eye

Using a 30-gauge needle, punch a hole at the edge of the cornea. Then, use fine dissection micro scissors to make a circular cut along the edge of the cornea. Using sharp dissection forceps, remove the cornea, lens, and the vitreous humor from the eye cup. Make several small cuts on the scleral layer at the rim of the eye cup using fine dissection micro scissors. Use two sharp dissection forceps to hold onto the scleral tissue at each side, and pull on the scleral layer very carefully to remove...

isolation of retinal stem cells from the mouse eye

Isolation of Retinal Stem Cells from the Mouse Eye

In this video, we will demonstrate how to isolate retinal stem cells from the ciliary epithelium of the mouse eye and grow them in culture to form clonal retinal spheres.  The spheres that are isolated possess the cardinal properties of stem cells: self-renewal and...

primary cell cultures from the mouse retinal pigment epithelium

Primary Cell Cultures from the Mouse Retinal Pigment Epithelium

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a multi-functional epithelium of the eye. Here we present a protocol to establish primary cell cultures derived from the murine...

preparation of cnv mouse model for indocyanine green angiography (igca) and fluorescein angiography (fa)

Preparation of CNV Mouse Model for Indocyanine Green Angiography (IGCA) and Fluorescein Angiography (FA)

isolation and cannulation of mesenteric lymph vessels to measure cytosolic, free calcium and vessel diameter in contracting lymph vessels

Isolation and Cannulation of Mesenteric Lymph Vessels to Measure Cytosolic, Free Calcium and Vessel Diameter in Contracting Lymph Vessels

When the carotid artery has been fully separated from the nerve and jugular vein, place a 4-0 silk suture at the proximal and distal ends of the exposed artery, and tie off the distal end of the carotid with a surgeon&#39;s knot and four square knots. On the proximal end, use a vascular silicone tie to allow for tightening or loosening of the vessel as needed. Next, apply approximately 0.5 millimeters of 1% lidocaine along the exposed carotid artery and nerve to promote vasodilation and reduce...

characterization of vascular morphology of neovascular age-related macular degeneration by indocyanine green angiography

Author Spotlight: Overcoming Anti-VEGF Resistance Through Advanced Vascular Morphology Assessment in Choroidal Neovascularization

Currently, fluorescein angiography (FA) is the preferred method for identifying leakage patterns in animal models of choroidal neovascularization (CNV). However, FA does not provide information about vascular morphology. This protocol outlines the use of indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) to characterize different lesion types of laser-induced CNV in mouse...

Characterizing Different Lesion Types of Laser-Induced CNV in Mouse

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patch clamp recordings from mouse retinal neurons in a dark-adapted slice preparation

Patch Clamp Recordings from Mouse Retinal Neurons in a Dark-adapted Slice Preparation

Here we describe a procedure for generating dark-adapted slices of the mouse retina for electrophysiological...

two-vessel occlusion mouse model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion

Two-vessel Occlusion Mouse Model of Cerebral Ischemia-reperfusion

A mouse model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion is established to investigate the pathophysiology of stroke. We distally ligate the right middle cerebral artery and right common carotid artery and restore blood flow after 10 or 40 min of...

measuring microglial uptake of intravitreally-delivered fluorescent particles using flow cytometry

This video demonstrates flow cytometry for measuring microglial uptake of fluorescent bioparticles after intravitreal delivery in a mouse eye. Flow cytometry detects live cells expressing CD11b and distinguishes phagocytic microglia cells exhibiting green fluorescence from other myeloid cells, including Ly6C-expressing monocytes and Ly6G-expressing...

Measuring Microglial Uptake of Intravitreally-Delivered Fluorescent Particles Using Flow Cytometry

Contrast Enhanced Vessel Imaging using MicroCT

Microscopic computed tomography (microCT) offers high-resolution volumetric imaging of the anatomy of living small animals. However, the contrast between different soft tissues and body fluids is inherently poor in micro-CT images 1. Under these circumstances, visualization of blood vessels becomes a nearly impossible task. To overcome this and to improve the visualization of blood vessels exogenous contrast agents can be used. Herein, we present a methodology for visualizing the vascular network in a rodent model. By using a long-acting aqueous colloidal polydisperse iodinated blood-pool contrast agent, eXIA 160XL, we optimized image acquisition parameters and volume-rendering techniques for finding blood vessels in live animals. Our findings suggest that, to achieve a superior contrast between bone and soft tissue from vessel, multiple-frames (at least 5-8/ frames per view), and 360-720 views (for a full 360&deg; rotation) acquisitions were mandatory. We have also demonstrated the use of a two-dimensional transfer function (where voxel color and opacity was assigned in proportion to CT value and gradient magnitude), in visualizing the anatomy and highlighting the structure of interest, the blood vessel network. This promising work lays a foundation for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of anti-angiogenesis preclinical studies using transgenic or xenograft tumor-bearing mice.

Contrast enhanced small animal vessel imaging by microCT is a rapid, cost-effective and high-throughput technique for serial in situ examination for tumor development, for analyzing the network of blood vessels that nourish them, and for following the response of tumors to preclinical therapeutic intervention(s).

Microscopic computed tomography (microCT) offers high-resolution volumetric imaging of the anatomy of living small animals. However, the contrast between ...

Detecting Abnormalities in Choroidal Vasculature in a Mouse Model of Age-related Macular Degeneration by Time-course Indocyanine Green Angiography

Indocyanine Green&#160;Angiography (or ICGA) is a technique performed by ophthalmologists to diagnose abnormalities of the choroidal and retinal vasculature of various eye diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD). ICGA is especially useful to image the posterior choroidal vasculature of the eye due to its capability of penetrating through the pigmented layer with its infrared spectrum. ICGA time course can be divided into early, middle, and late phases. The three phases provide valuable information on the pathology of eye problems. Although time-course ICGA by intravenous (IV) injection is widely used in the clinic for the diagnosis and management of choroid problems, ICGA by intraperitoneal injection (IP) is commonly used in animal research. Here we demonstrated the technique to obtain high-resolution ICGA time-course images in mice by tail-vein injection and confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy. We used this technique to image the choroidal lesions in a mouse model of age-related macular degeneration. Although it is much easier to introduce ICG to the mouse vasculature by IP, our data indicate that it is difficult to obtain reproducible ICGA time course images by IP-ICGA. In contrast, ICGA via tail vein injection provides high quality ICGA time-course images comparable to human studies. In addition, we showed that ICGA performed on albino mice gives clearer pictures of choroidal vessels than that performed on pigmented mice. We suggest that time-course IV-ICGA should become a standard practice in AMD research based on animal models.

Indocyanine Green Angiography (or ICGA) performed by tail vein injection provides high quality ICGA time course images to characterize abnormalities in mouse choroid.

Indocyanine Green&#160;Angiography (or ICGA) is a technique performed by ophthalmologists to diagnose abnormalities of the choroidal and retinal ...

Ferric Chloride-induced Thrombosis Mouse Model on Carotid Artery and Mesentery Vessel

Severe thrombosis and its ischemic consequences such as myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and stroke are major worldwide health issues. The ferric chloride injury is now a well-established technique to rapidly and accurately induce the formation of thrombi in exposed veins or artery of small and large diameter. This model has played a key role in the study of the pathophysiology of thrombosis, in the discovery and validation of novel antithrombotic drugs and in the understanding of the mechanism of action of these new agents. Here, the implementation of this technique on a mesenteric vessel and carotid artery in mice is presented. The method describes how to label circulating leukocytes and platelets with a fluorescent dye and to observe, by intravital microscopy on the exposed mesentery, their accumulation at the injured vessel wall which leads to the formation of a thrombus. On the carotid artery, the occlusion caused by the clot formation is measured by monitoring the blood flow with a Doppler probe.

The FeCl3 induced thrombosis model in mice is described herein. A method to monitor thrombus growth by intravital microscopy observation on a mesenteric vessel and by blood flow measurement in the carotid artery is presented.

Severe thrombosis and its ischemic consequences such as myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and stroke are major worldwide health issues. The ferric ...

The retinal and choroidal blood flow dynamics may provide insight into the pathophysiology and sequelae of various ocular diseases, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and other ocular inflammatory conditions. It may also help to monitor the therapeutic responses in the eye. The proper labeling of the blood cells, coupled with live-cell imaging of the labeled cells, allows for the investigation of the flow dynamics in the retinal and choroidal circulation. Here, we describe the standardized protocols of 1.5% indocyanine green (ICG) and 1% sodium fluorescein labeling of mice erythrocytes and leukocytes, respectively. Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) was applied to visualize the labeled cells in the retinal circulation of C57BL/6J mice (wild type). Both methods demonstrated distinct fluorescently labeled cells in the mouse retinal circulation. These labeling methods can have wider applications in various ocular disease models.

Live-cell imaging of the labeled blood cells in ocular circulation can provide information about inflammation and ischemia in diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. A protocol to label blood cells and image the labeled cells in the retinal circulation is described.

The retinal and choroidal blood flow dynamics may provide insight into the pathophysiology and sequelae of various ocular diseases, such as glaucoma, ...

Preparation Steps for Measurement of Reactivity in Mouse Retinal Arterioles Ex Vivo

Vascular insufficiency and alterations in normal retinal perfusion are among the major factors for the pathogenesis of various sight-threatening ocular diseases, such as diabetic retinopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, and possibly glaucoma. Therefore, retinal microvascular preparations are pivotal tools for physiological and pharmacological studies to delineate the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and to design therapies for the diseases. Despite the wide use of mouse models in ophthalmic research, studies on retinal vascular reactivity are scarce in this species. A major reason for this discrepancy is the challenging isolation procedures owing to the small size of these retinal blood vessels, which is ~ &#8804; 30 &#181;m in luminal diameter. To circumvent the problem of direct isolation of these retinal microvessels for functional studies, we established an isolation and preparation technique that enables ex vivo studies of mouse retinal vasoactivity under near-physiological conditions. Although the present experimental preparations will specifically refer to the mouse retinal arterioles, this methodology can readily be employed to microvessels from rats.

Preparation Steps for Measurement of Reactivity in Mouse Retinal Arterioles Ex Vivo

Many vision-threatening ocular diseases are associated with dysfunctional retinal microvessels. Therefore, the measurement of retinal arteriole responses is important to investigate the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms. This article describes a detailed protocol for mouse retinal arteriole isolation and preparation to assess the effects of vasoactive substances on vascular diameter.

Vascular insufficiency and alterations in normal retinal perfusion are among the major factors for the pathogenesis of various sight-threatening ocular ...

In this study, a middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion mouse model is employed to study cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. A reproducible and reliable mouse model is useful for investigating the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion and determining potential therapeutic strategies for patients with stroke. Variations in the anatomy of the circle of Willis of C57BL/6 mice affects their infarct volume after cerebral-ischemia-induced injury. Studies have indicated that distal MCA occlusion (MCAO) can overcome this problem and result in a stable infarct size. In this study, we establish a two-vessel occlusion mouse model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion through the interruption of the blood flow to the right MCA. We distally ligate the right MCA and right common carotid artery (CCA) and restore blood flow after a certain period of ischemia. This ischemia-reperfusion injury induces an infarct of stable size and a behavioral deficit. Peripheral immune cells infiltrate the ischemic brain within the 24 h infiltration period. Additionally, the neuronal loss in the cortical area is less for a longer reperfusion duration. Therefore, this two-vessel occlusion model is suitable for investigating the immune response and neuronal recovery during the reperfusion period after cerebral ischemia.

A mouse model of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion is established to investigate the pathophysiology of stroke. We distally ligate the right middle cerebral artery and right common carotid artery and restore blood flow after 10 or 40 min of ischemia.

In this study, a middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion mouse model is employed to study cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. A reproducible and reliable mouse ...

Retinal Organoid Induction System for Derivation of 3D Retinal Tissues from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Retinal degenerative diseases are the main causes of irreversible blindness without effective treatment. Pluripotent stem cells that have the potential to differentiate into all types of retinal cells, even mini-retinal tissues, hold huge promises for patients with these diseases and many opportunities in disease modeling and drug screening. However, the induction process from hPSCs to retinal cells is complicated and time-consuming. Here, we describe an optimized retinal induction protocol to generate retinal tissues with high reproducibility and efficiency, suitable for various human pluripotent stem cells. This protocol is performed without the addition of retinoic acid, which benefits the enrichment of cone photoreceptors. The advantage of this protocol is the quantification of EB size and plating density to significantly enhance the efficiency and repeatability of retinal induction. With this method, all major retinal cells sequentially appear and recapitulate the main steps of retinal development. It will facilitate downstream applications, such as disease modeling and cell therapy.

Here we describe an optimized retinal organoid induction system, which is suitable for various human pluripotent stem cell lines to generate retinal tissues with high reproducibility and efficiency.

Retinal degenerative diseases are the main causes of irreversible blindness without effective treatment. Pluripotent stem cells that have the potential to ...

Parafoveal circulation of the superficial retinal capillary plexus is usually measured with vessel density, which determines the length of capillaries with circulation, and perfusion density, which calculates the percentage of the evaluated area that has circulation. Perfusion density also considers the circulation of vessels larger than capillaries, although the contribution of these vessels to the first is not usually evaluated. As both measurements are automatically generated by optical coherence tomography angiography devices, this paper proposes a method for estimating the contribution of vessels larger than capillaries by using a coefficient of determination between vessel and perfusion densities. This method can reveal a change in the proportion of perfusion density from vessels larger than capillaries, even when mean values do not differ. This change could reflect compensatory arterial vasodilatation as a response to capillary dropout in the initial stages of retinal vascular diseases before clinical retinopathy appears. The proposed method would allow the estimation of the changes in the composition of perfusion density without the need for other devices.

We describe the evaluation of a coefficient of determination between vessel and perfusion density of the parafoveal superficial capillary plexus to identify the contribution of vessels larger than capillaries to perfusion density.

Parafoveal circulation of the superficial retinal capillary plexus is usually measured with vessel density, which determines the length of capillaries ...

As a key event of cardiovascular system diseases, coronary artery disease (CAD) has been widely regarded as the main culprit of atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and angina pectoris, which seriously threaten the life and health of people all over the world. However, how to record the dynamic biomechanical characteristics of isolated blood vessels has long puzzled people. Meanwhile, precise positioning and isolation of coronary arteries to measure in vitro dynamic vascular tension changes have become a trend in CAD drug development. The present protocol describes the macroscopic identification and microscopic separation of rat coronary arteries. The contraction and dilation function of the coronary artery ring along the vessel diameter was monitored using the established multi myograph system. The standardized and programmed protocols of coronary ring tension measurement, from sampling to data acquisition, tremendously improve the repeatability of the experimental data, which ensures the authenticity of vascular tension records after physiological, pathological, and drug intervention.

The present protocol describes the wire myograph technique for measuring vascular reactivity of the rat coronary artery.

As a key event of cardiovascular system diseases, coronary artery disease (CAD) has been widely regarded as the main culprit of atherosclerosis, ...

Retinal Explant of the Adult Mouse Retina as an Ex Vivo Model for Studying Retinal Neurovascular Diseases

One of the challenges in retina research is studying the cross-talk between different retinal cells such as retinal neurons, glial cells, and vascular cells. Isolating, culturing, and sustaining retinal neurons in vitro have technical and biological limitations. Culturing retinal explants may overcome these limitations and offer a unique ex vivo model to study the cross-talk between various retinal cells with well-controlled biochemical parameters and independent of the vascular system. Moreover, retinal explants are an effective screening tool for studying novel pharmacological interventions in various retinal vascular and neurodegenerative diseases such as diabetic retinopathy. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for retinal explants' isolation and culture for an extended period. The manuscript also presents some of the technical problems during this procedure that may affect the desired outcomes and reproducibility of the retinal explant culture. The immunostaining of the retinal vessels, glial cells, and neurons demonstrated intact retinal capillaries and neuroglial cells after 2 weeks from the beginning of the retinal explant culture. This establishes retinal explants as a reliable tool for studying changes in the retinal vasculature and neuroglial cells under conditions that mimic retinal diseases such as diabetic retinopathy.

Retinal Explant of the Adult Mouse Retina as an Ex Vivo Model for Studying Retinal Neurovascular Diseases

This protocol presents and describes steps for the isolation, dissection, culturing, and staining of retinal explants obtained from an adult mouse. This method is beneficial as an ex vivo model for studying different retinal neurovascular diseases such as diabetic retinopathy.

One of the challenges in retina research is studying the cross-talk between different retinal cells such as retinal neurons, glial cells, and vascular ...