Questa ricerca è stata finanziata da una borsa di studio Wellcome Trust senior assegnato a Ian Goodfellow, e Marie Curie Intra European Fellowship (7 ° PQ Consiglio europeo della ricerca) ha assegnato ad Armando Arias. Vorremmo ringraziare Io Hong Cheong, il dottor Rebecca Robey e il dottor Mike Skinner per averci dato il permesso di utilizzare il loro bioanalyser Agilent e contribuendo con l&#39;esecuzione campioni di RNA.

<ol>
	<li>. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Outbreaks+of+gastroenteritis+associated+with+noroviruses+on+cruise+ships--United+States.">Outbreaks of gastroenteritis associated with noroviruses on cruise ships--United States.</a> MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51, 1112-1115 (2002).</li><li>Lopman, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidemiology+and+cost+of+nosocomial+gastroenteritis,+Avon,+England,+2002-2003.">Epidemiology and cost of nosocomial gastroenteritis, Avon, England, 2002-2003.</a> Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 2002-2003 (2004).</li><li>Duizer, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laboratory+efforts+to+cultivate+noroviruses.">Laboratory efforts to cultivate noroviruses.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 85, 79-87 (2004).</li><li>Karst, S. M., Wobus, C. E., Lay, M., Davidson, J., Virgin, H. W. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=STAT1-dependent+innate+immunity+to+a+Norwalk-like+virus.">STAT1-dependent innate immunity to a Norwalk-like virus.</a> Science. 299, 1575-1575 (2003).</li><li>Wobus, C. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Replication+of+Norovirus+in+cell+culture+reveals+a+tropism+for+dendritic+cells+and+macrophages.">Replication of Norovirus in cell culture reveals a tropism for dendritic cells and macrophages.</a> PLoS Biol. 2, e432 (2004).</li><li>Bok, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+norovirus+replication+by+morpholino+oligomers+targeting+the+5'-end+of+the+genome.">Inhibition of norovirus replication by morpholino oligomers targeting the 5'-end of the genome.</a> Virology. 380, 328-337 (2008).</li><li>Kim, Y., Thapa, M., Hua, D. H., Chang, K. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biodegradable+nanogels+for+oral+delivery+of+interferon+for+norovirus+infection.">Biodegradable nanogels for oral delivery of interferon for norovirus infection.</a> Antiviral Res. 89, 165-173 (2011).</li><li>McFadden, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Norovirus+Regulation+of+the+Innate+Immune+Response+and+Apoptosis+Occurs+via+the+Product+of+the+Alternative+Open+Reading+Frame+4.">Norovirus Regulation of the Innate Immune Response and Apoptosis Occurs via the Product of the Alternative Open Reading Frame 4.</a> PLoS Pathog. 7, e1002413 (2011).</li><li>Kormelink, R., van Poelwijk, F., Peters, D., Goldbach, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-viral+heterogeneous+sequences+at+the+5'+ends+of+tomato+spotted+wilt+virus+mRNAs.">Non-viral heterogeneous sequences at the 5' ends of tomato spotted wilt virus mRNAs.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 73, 2125-2128 (1992).</li><li>Shuman, S., Hurwitz, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+of+mRNA+capping+by+vaccinia+virus+guanylyltransferase:+characterization+of+an+enzyme--guanylate+intermediate.">Mechanism of mRNA capping by vaccinia virus guanylyltransferase: characterization of an enzyme--guanylate intermediate.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78, 187-191 (1981).</li><li>Jang, S. K., Pestova, T. V., Hellen, C. U., Witherell, G. W., Wimmer, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cap-independent+translation+of+picornavirus+RNAs:+structure+and+function+of+the+internal+ribosomal+entry+site.">Cap-independent translation of picornavirus RNAs: structure and function of the internal ribosomal entry site.</a> Enzyme. 44, 292-309 (1990).</li><li>Chaudhry, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caliciviruses+differ+in+their+functional+requirements+for+eIF4F+components.">Caliciviruses differ in their functional requirements for eIF4F components.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 281, 25315-25325 (2006).</li><li>Goodfellow, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Calicivirus+translation+initiation+requires+an+interaction+between+VPg+and+eIF+4.">Calicivirus translation initiation requires an interaction between VPg and eIF 4.</a> E. EMBO Rep. 6, 968-972 (2005).</li><li>Herbert, T. P., Brierley, I., Brown, T. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+a+protein+linked+to+the+genomic+and+subgenomic+mRNAs+of+feline+calicivirus+and+its+role+in+translation.">Identification of a protein linked to the genomic and subgenomic mRNAs of feline calicivirus and its role in translation.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 78 ( Pt5 ), 1033-1040 (1997).</li><li>Chaudhry, Y., Skinner, M. A., Goodfellow, I. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recovery+of+genetically+defined+murine+norovirus+in+tissue+culture+by+using+a+fowlpox+virus+expressing+T7+RNA+polymerase.">Recovery of genetically defined murine norovirus in tissue culture by using a fowlpox virus expressing T7 RNA polymerase.</a> J. Gen. Virol. 88, 2091-20100 (2007).</li><li>Ward, V. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recovery+of+infectious+murine+norovirus+using+pol+II-driven+expression+of+full-length+cDNA.">Recovery of infectious murine norovirus using pol II-driven expression of full-length cDNA.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 11050-11055 (2007).</li><li>Yunus, M. A., Chung, L. M., Chaudhry, Y., Bailey, D., Goodfellow, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+an+optimized+RNA-based+murine+norovirus+reverse+genetics+system.">Development of an optimized RNA-based murine norovirus reverse genetics system.</a> J. Virol. Methods. 169, 112-118 (2010).</li><li>Arias, A., Perales, C., Escarmis, C., Domingo, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deletion+mutants+of+VPg+reveal+new+cytopathology+determinants+in+a+picornavirus.">Deletion mutants of VPg reveal new cytopathology determinants in a picornavirus.</a> PLoS One. 5, e10735 (2010).</li><li>Werf, S. v. a. n. d. e. r., Bradley, J., Wimmer, E., Studier, F. W., Dunn, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+of+infectious+poliovirus+RNA+by+purified+T7+RNA+polymerase.">Synthesis of infectious poliovirus RNA by purified T7 RNA polymerase.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83, 2330-2334 (1986).</li><li>Bailey, D., Thackray, L. B., Goodfellow, I. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+single+amino+acid+substitution+in+the+murine+norovirus+capsid+protein+is+sufficient+for+attenuation+in+vivo.">A single amino acid substitution in the murine norovirus capsid protein is sufficient for attenuation in vivo.</a> J. Virol. 82, 7725-7728 (2008).</li><li>Bailey, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+analysis+of+RNA+structures+present+at+the+3'+extremity+of+the+murine+norovirus+genome:+the+variable+polypyrimidine+tract+plays+a+role+in+viral+virulence.">Functional analysis of RNA structures present at the 3' extremity of the murine norovirus genome: the variable polypyrimidine tract plays a role in viral virulence.</a> J. Virol. 84, 2859-2870 (2010).</li></ol>

Non abbiamo nulla da rivelare.

Qui abbiamo illustrato due differenti approcci inverse genetici che permettono il recupero di MNV infettiva in coltura cellulare. Sia avvicina efficacemente bypassare il requisito assoluto per il collegamento covalente del VPG alla estremità 5 &#39;del genoma di RNA virale attraverso la generazione del ridotte trascritti MNV che vengono poi riconosciuti dai ribosomi cellulari. Trascrizione in vitro seguita da enzimaticamente tappatura è più efficiente in il recupero di MNV virulenta della trascrizione di plasmidi infettive in cellule esprimenti T7 RNA polimerasi, in cui i trascritti può essere chiuso da gli enzimi FPV tappatura. Titoli virali recuperati con questi sistemi genetica inversa sono simili a quelle ottenute mediante trasfezione di virali VPG-linked RNA purificati da colture di cellule infette 17 (Figura 5). La transfezione di capped MNV RNA in cellule permissive Raw264.7 rende un titolo virus solo l&#39;1-log inferiore esperimenti di transfection di RNA totale da cellule infette contenenti virale VPG-linked RNA (Figura 5). Questo fatto incoraggia ulteriori indagini per determinare se l&#39;aggiunta di una molecola VPG alla estremità 5 &#39;di trascritti generati da questi sistemi può comportare un aumento rese virali che possono rivelare aspetti funzionali sottostanti infettività MNV in cellule associate a VPG. Tuttavia, consideriamo questo sistema genetica inversa come una altamente efficiente comparabile ad altri virus RNA genetica inversa sistemi attualmente utilizzati in cui l&#39;RNA trascritto in vitro permette il recupero dei titoli solo 10-100 inferiori nelle infezioni reali con virioni 19, 20. Nel complesso, le metodologie attuali costituiscono un significativo passo avanti nel campo della biologia molecolare e norovirus fornirci gli strumenti per indagare i ruoli funzionali di proteine ​​e RNA motivi conservati nei genomi di norovirus. Questi approcci sono già stati combinati con cmodello di topo ATTUALE a disposizione e hanno dimostrato che MNV recuperato da cDNA infettiva è in grado di causare l&#39;infezione letale di&gt; 80% STAT1-/ - topi in meno di 10 giorni 4, 21. Facendo uso di questo sistema abbiamo recuperato mutanti vitali norovirus murini della proteina del capside e di un tratto polypyrimidine coinvolto nel legame di fattori diversi host (PTB e PCBP) che mostrano un fenotipo alquanto attenuati in vivo 21, 22. Inoltre, abbiamo recentemente dimostrato che i virus che mancano della capacità di esprimere la proteina da VF1 ORF4 efficiente replicarsi nelle cellule in coltura, ma ancora una volta hanno ridotto la virulenza nei topi rispetto al WT MNV 8. Questi studi ci incoraggiano a progettare versioni attenuate di norovirus umani sulla base di studi MNV che potrebbero essere indagati come potenziali candidati vaccini.

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> Nome del reattivo </td><td> Azienda </td><td> Numero di catalogo </td></tr><tr><td> Soluzione di cloruro di litio precipitazioni </td><td> Ambion </td><td> AM9480 </td></tr><tr><td> RNA soluzione di storage </td><td> Ambion </td><td> AM7000 </td></tr><tr><td> MEGAscript T7 sceneggiatura </td><td> Ambion </td><td> AM1333 </td></tr><tr><td> ScriptCap m7G Capping sistema </td><td> Epicentre Biotecnologie </td><td> SCCE0610 </td></tr><tr><td> Trasfezione sistema Neon </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> MPK5000 </td></tr><tr><td> Neon trasfezione kit sistema </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> MPK1025 </td></tr><tr><td> Opti-MEM I </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 31985070 </td></tr><tr><td> Lipofectamine 2000 Transfection Reagent </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 11668-027 </td></tr><tr><td> Agilent RNA 600 Nano kit </td><td> Agilent </td><td> 5067-1511 </td></tr><tr><td> Agilent 2100 bioanalyzer </td><td> Agilent </td><td> G2939AA </td></tr><tr><td> Illustra GFX PCR DNA e Kit Banda Gel Purificazione </td><td> GE Healthcare </td><td> 28-9034-70 </td></tr><tr><td> RiboMAX Large Scale Production System-T7 RNA </td><td> Promega </td><td> P1300 </td></tr></tbody></table>

reverse genetics mediated recovery of infectious murine norovirus

Norovirus umani sono responsabili della maggior parte dei casi di gastroenterite umana (GE) a livello mondiale e sono problema ricorrente in ambienti dove vicino da persona a persona di contatto non possono essere evitati 1, 2. Negli ultimi anni un aumento nell&#39;incidenza di focolai negli ospedali è stata riportata, causando interruzioni significative per la loro capacità operativa nonché grandi perdite economiche. L&#39;identificazione di nuovi approcci antivirali è stato limitato a causa dell&#39;incapacità di norovirus umani per completare una infezione produttiva in coltura cellulare 3. L&#39;isolamento recente di un norovirus murino (MNV), strettamente legato al norovirus umana 4, ma che può essere propagato in cellule 5 ha aperto nuove strade per lo studio di questi patogeni 6, 7. Risultati replica MNV nella sintesi di nuovo genomico senso positivo e subgenomici molecole di RNA, l&#39;ultimo dei quali corrisponde all&#39;ultimo THIRd del genoma virale (Figura 1). MNV contiene quattro diversi telai di lettura aperti (ORF), di cui ORF1 occupa la maggior parte del genoma e codifica sette proteine ​​non strutturali (NS1-7) rilasciati da un precursore poliproteina. ORF2 e ORF3 sono contenuti all&#39;interno della regione subgenomico RNA e codificano le proteine ​​del capside (VP1 e VP2, rispettivamente) (Figura 1). Recentemente, abbiamo identificato che ORF4 ulteriore sovrapposizione ORF2, ma in una cornice diversa lettura è funzionale e codifica per un fattore di virulenza mitocondriale localizzata (VF1) 8. Replica di virus RNA senso positivi, compresi norovirus, avviene nel citoplasma risultante nella sintesi di nuovi livellate genomi di RNA. Per promuovere traduzione virale, i virus sfruttano diverse strategie volte al reclutamento del macchinario cellulare sintesi proteica 9-11. È interessante notare, traduzione norovirus è guidato dalla proteina virale multifunzionale-primer VPGlegata covalentemente al 5 &#39;di entrambi RNA genomici e subgenomico 12-14. Questo sofisticato meccanismo di traduzione è probabile che sia un fattore importante nella scarsa efficienza di recupero virale tradizionali approcci di genetica inversa. Riportiamo due diverse strategie basate sulla generazione di norovirus murino-1 (indicato come MNV qui allegata) trascritti limitato al 5 &#39;. Uno dei metodi coinvolge sia sintesi in vitro e tappatura di RNA virale, mentre il secondo approccio implica la trascrizione di MNV cDNA in cellule esprimenti T7 RNA polimerasi. La disponibilità di questi sistemi genetica inversa per lo studio di MNV e un modello animale piccolo ha fornito una capacità senza precedenti per sezionare il ruolo di sequenze virali di replicazione e patogenesi 15-17.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Reverse Genetics Mediated Recovery of Infectious Murine Norovirus at JoVE.com

Reverse Genetics Mediated Recovery of Infectious Murine Norovirus

I Norovirus sono una delle principali cause di gastroenterite ancora tecniche molecolari per la loro caratterizzazione sono ancora relativamente nuovi. Riportiamo due diversi approcci di genetica inversa per il recupero efficiente dei norovirus murino (MNV), l&#39;unico membro di questo genere che possono essere propagate in coltura cellulare.

Reverse Genetics recupero mediato del Infettive Norovirus Murine

Human noroviruses are responsible for most cases of human gastroenteritis (GE) worldwide and are recurrent problem in environments where close ...

reverse-genetics-mediated-recovery-of-infectious-murine-norovirus

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JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

16.5K Views.  Imperial College London. I Norovirus sono una delle principali cause di gastroenterite ancora tecniche molecolari per la loro caratterizzazione sono ancora relativamente nuovi. Riportiamo due diversi approcci di genetica inversa per il recupero efficiente dei norovirus murino (MNV), l'unico membro di questo genere che possono essere propagate in coltura cellulare.

Video: Reverse Genetics Mediated Recovery of Infectious Murine Norovirus

Using Reverse Genetics to Manipulate the NSs Gene of the Rift Valley Fever Virus MP-12 Strain to Improve Vaccine Safety and Efficacy

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), which causes hemorrhagic fever, neurological disorders or blindness in humans, and a high rate abortion and fetal malformation in ruminants1, has been classified as a HHS/USDA overlap select agent and a risk group 3 pathogen. It belongs to the genus Phlebovirus in the family Bunyaviridae and is one of the most virulent members of this family. Several reverse genetics systems for the RVFV MP-12 vaccine strain2,3 as well as wild-type RVFV strains 4-6, including ZH548 and ZH501, have been developed since 2006. The MP-12 strain (which is a risk group 2 pathogen and a non-select agent) is highly attenuated by several mutations in its M- and L-segments, but still carries virulent S-segment RNA3, which encodes a functional virulence factor, NSs. The rMP12-C13type (C13type) carrying 69% in-frame deletion of NSs ORF lacks all the known NSs functions, while it replicates as efficient as does MP-12 in VeroE6 cells lacking type-I IFN. NSs induces a shut-off of host transcription including interferon (IFN)-beta mRNA7,8 and promotes degradation of double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) at the post-translational level.9,10 IFN-beta is transcriptionally upregulated by interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), NF-kB and activator protein-1 (AP-1), and the binding of IFN-beta to IFN-alpha/beta receptor (IFNAR) stimulates the transcription of IFN-alpha genes or other interferon stimulated genes (ISGs)11, which induces host antiviral activities, whereas host transcription suppression including IFN-beta gene by NSs prevents the gene upregulations of those ISGs in response to viral replication although IRF-3, NF-kB and activator protein-1 (AP-1) can be activated by RVFV7. . Thus, NSs is an excellent target to further attenuate MP-12, and to enhance host innate immune responses by abolishing the IFN-beta suppression function. Here, we describe a protocol for generating a recombinant MP-12 encoding mutated NSs, and provide an example of a screening method to identify NSs mutants lacking the function to suppress IFN-beta mRNA synthesis. In addition to its essential role in innate immunity, type-I IFN is important for the maturation of dendritic cells and the induction of an adaptive immune response12-14. Thus, NSs mutants inducing type-I IFN are further attenuated, but at the same time are more efficient at stimulating host immune responses than wild-type MP-12, which makes them ideal candidates for vaccination approaches.

The reverse genetics system for the Rift Valley fever virus MP-12 vaccine strain is a useful tool for creating additional MP-12 mutants with increased attenuation and immunogenicity. We describe the protocol to generate and characterize NSs mutant strains.

Utilizzando genetica inversa per manipolare il gene del NSS il virus della febbre della Rift Valley MP-12 Strain per migliorare la sicurezza e l&#39;efficacia del vaccino

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), which causes hemorrhagic fever, neurological disorders or blindness in humans, and a high rate abortion and fetal ...

Ricerca

Immunologia e infezioni

Plaque Assay for Murine Norovirus

Murine norovirus (MNV) is the only member of the Norovirus genus that efficiently grows in tissue culture 1, 2. Cell lysis and cytopathic effect (CPE) are observed during MNV-1 infection of murine dendritic cells or macrophages 1. This property of MNV-1 can be used to quantify the number of infectious particles in a given sample by performing a plaque assay 1. The plaque assay relies on the ability of MNV-1 to lyse cells and to form holes in a confluent cell monolayer, which are called plaques 3.
Multiple techniques can be used to detect viral infections in tissue culture, harvested tissue, clinical, and environmental samples, but not all measure the number of infectious particles (e.g. qRT-PCR). One way to quantify infectious viral particles is to perform a plaque assay 3, which will be described in detail below. A variation on the MNV plaque assay is the fluorescent focus assay, where MNV antigen is immunostained in cell monolayers 4. This assay can be faster, since viral antigen expression precedes plaque formation. It is also useful for titrating viruses unable to form plaques. However, the fluorescent focus assay requires additional resources beyond those of the plaque assay, such as antibodies and a microscope to count focus-forming units. Infectious MNV can also be quantified by determining the 50% Tissue Culture Infective Dose (TCID50) 3. This assay measures the amount of virus required to produce CPE in 50% of inoculated tissue culture cells by endpoint titration 5. However, its limit of detection is higher compared to a plaque assay 4.
In this article, we describe a plaque assay protocol that can be used to effectively determine the number of infectious MNV particles present in biological or environmental samples 1, 4, 6. This method is based on the preparation of 10-fold serial dilutions of MNV-containing samples, which are used to inoculate a monolayer of permissive cells (RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells). Virus is allowed to attach to the cell monolayer for a given period of time and then aspirated before covering cells with a mixture of agarose and cell culture media. The agar enables the spread of viral progeny to neighboring cells while limiting spread to distantly located cells. Consequently, infected cells are lysed and form holes in the monolayer known as plaques. Upon sufficient spread of virus, plaques become visible following staining of cells with dyes, like neutral red, methylene blue, or crystal violet. At low dilutions, each plaque originates from one infectious viral particle and its progeny, which spread to neighboring cells. Thus, counting the number of plaques allows one to calculate plaque-forming units (PFU) present in the undiluted sample 3.

Here we describe a method to quantify infectious particles of murine norovirus (MNV), which is the only norovirus that efficiently replicates in cell culture. The plaque assay takes advantage of MNV&#x2019;s tropism for murine macrophages and can be adapted for use with biological or environmental samples containing MNV.

Saggio di placca per Norovirus Murine

Murine norovirus (MNV) is the only member of the Norovirus genus that efficiently grows in tissue culture 1, 2. Cell lysis and cytopathic effect (CPE) are ...

Isolating And Immunostaining Lymphocytes and Dendritic Cells from Murine Peyer's Patches

Peyer's patches (PPs) are integral components of the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) and play a central role in intestinal immunosurveillance and homeostasis. Particulate antigens and microbes in the intestinal lumen are continuously sampled by PP M cells in the follicle-associated epithelium (FAE) and transported to an underlying network of dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and lymphocytes. In this article, we describe protocols in which murine PPs are (i) dissociated into single cell suspensions and subjected to flow cytometry and (ii) prepared for cryosectioning and immunostaining. For flow cytometry, PPs are mechanically dissociated and then filtered through 70 &mu;m membranes to generate single cell suspensions free of epithelial cells and large debris. Starting with 20-25 PPs (from four mice), this quick and reproducible method yields a population of &gt;2.5 x 106 cells with &gt;90% cell viability. For cryosectioning, freshly isolated PPs are immersed in Optimal Cutting Temperature (OCT) medium, snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen, and then sectioned using a cryomicrotome. Tissue sections (5-12 &mu;m) are air-dried, fixed with acetone or methanol, and then subjected to immunolabeling.

Isolating And Immunostaining Lymphocytes and Dendritic Cells from Murine Peyer&#039;s Patches

There is an increasing interest in understanding the immunological functions of specific subpopulations of cells in Peyer's patches (PPs), the primary inductive sites of gut-associated lymphoid tissues. Here we outline parallel protocols for preparing PP single cell preparations for flow cytometric analysis and PP cryosections for immunostaining.

Isolare e Immunostaining linfociti e le cellule dendritiche da placche di Peyer murino di

Peyer's  patches (PPs) are integral components of the gut-associated lymphoid tissues  (GALT) and play a central role in intestinal immunosurveillance and ...

VIGS-Mediated Forward Genetics Screening for Identification of Genes Involved in Nonhost Resistance

Nonhost disease resistance of plants against bacterial pathogens is controlled by complex defense pathways. Understanding this mechanism is important for developing durable disease-resistant plants against wide range of pathogens. Virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS)-based forward genetics screening is a useful approach for identification of plant defense genes imparting nonhost resistance. Tobacco rattle virus (TRV)-based VIGS vector is the most efficient VIGS vector to date and has been efficiently used to silence endogenous target genes in Nicotiana benthamiana.

	In this manuscript, we demonstrate a forward genetics screening approach for silencing of individual clones from a cDNA library in N. benthamiana and assessing the response of gene silenced plants for compromised nonhost resistance against nonhost pathogens, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato T1, P. syringae pv. glycinea, and X. campestris pv. vesicatoria. These bacterial pathogens are engineered to express GFPuv protein and their green fluorescing colonies can be seen by naked eye under UV light in the nonhost pathogen inoculated plants if the silenced target gene is involved in imparting nonhost resistance. This facilitates reliable and faster identification of gene silenced plants susceptible to nonhost pathogens. Further, promising candidate gene information can be known by sequencing the plant gene insert in TRV vector. Here we demonstrate the high throughput capability of VIGS-mediated forward genetics to identify genes involved in nonhost resistance. Approximately, 100 cDNAs can be individually silenced in about two to three weeks and their relevance in nonhost resistance against several nonhost bacterial pathogens can be studied in a week thereafter. In this manuscript, we enumerate the detailed steps involved in this screening. VIGS-mediated forward genetics screening approach can be extended not only to identifying genes involved in nonhost resistance but also to studying genes imparting several biotic and abiotic stress tolerances in various plant species.

Virus-induced gene silencing is an useful tool for identifying genes involved in nonhost resistance of plants. We demonstrate the use of bacterial pathogens expressing GFPuv in identifying gene silenced plants susceptible to nonhost pathogens. This approach is easy, fast and facilitates large scale screening and similar protocol can be applied to studying various other plant-microbe interactions.

VIGS-Mediated Forward Genetica screening per la identificazione di geni coinvolti nella resistenza Nonhost


	Nonhost disease resistance of plants against bacterial pathogens is controlled by complex defense pathways. Understanding this mechanism is important ...

Organoids as Model for Infectious Diseases: Culture of Human and Murine Stomach Organoids and Microinjection of Helicobacter Pylori

Recently infection biologists have employed stem cell derived cultures to answer the need for new and better models to study host-pathogen interactions. Three cellular sources have been used: Embryonic stem cells (ESC), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) or adult stem cells. Here, culture of mouse and human gastric organoids derived from adult stem cells is described and used for infection with the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Human gastric glands are isolated from resection material, seeded in a basement matrix and embedded in medium containing growth factors epidermal growth factor (EGF), R-spondin, Noggin, Wnt, fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 10, gastrin and transforming growth factor (TGF) beta inhibitor. In these conditions, gastric glands grow into 3-dimensional organoids containing 4 lineages of the stomach. The organoids expand indefinitely and can be frozen and thawed similarly as cell lines. For infection studies, bacteria are microinjected into the lumen of the organoids. Infected organoids are processed for imaging. The described methods can be adapted to other organoids and infections with other bacteria, viruses or parasites. This allows the study of infection-induced changes in primary cells.

Stem cell derived cultures harbor tremendous potential to model infectious diseases. Here, the culture of mouse and human gastric organoids derived from adult stem cells is described. The organoids are microinjected with the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori.

Organoidi come modello per le malattie infettive: cultura dei diritti dell&#39;uomo e organoidi stomaco murini e microiniezione dell&#39;Helicobacter Pylori

Recently infection biologists have employed stem cell derived cultures to answer the need for new and better models to study host-pathogen interactions. ...

Isolation and Flow Cytometric Characterization of Murine Small Intestinal Lymphocytes

The intestines &#8212; which contain the largest number of immune cells of any organ in the body &#8212; are constantly exposed to foreign antigens, both microbial and dietary. Given an increasing understanding that these luminal antigens help shape the immune response and that education of immune cells within the intestine is critical for a number of systemic diseases, there has been increased interest in characterizing the intestinal immune system. However, many published protocols are arduous and time-consuming. We present here a simplified protocol for the isolation of lymphocytes from the small-intestinal lamina propria, intraepithelial layer, and Peyer&#39;s patches that is rapid, reproducible, and does not require laborious Percoll gradients. Although the protocol focuses on the small intestine, it is also suitable for analysis of the colon. Moreover, we highlight some aspects that may need additional optimization depending on the specific scientific question. This approach results in the isolation of large numbers of viable lymphocytes that can subsequently be used for flow cytometric analysis or alternate means of characterization.

There is growing interest in the quantitative characterization of intestinal lymphocytes owing to increasing recognition that these cells play a critical role in a variety of intestinal and systemic diseases. In this protocol, we describe how to isolate single cell populations from different small-intestinal compartments for subsequent flow cytometric characterization.

Isolamento e caratterizzazione citometria a flusso di Murine Piccolo intestinale Linfociti

The intestines &#8212; which contain the largest number of immune cells of any organ in the body &#8212; are constantly exposed to foreign antigens, both ...

Swab Sampling Method for the Detection of Human Norovirus on Surfaces

Human noroviruses are a leading cause of epidemic and sporadic gastroenteritis worldwide. Because most infections are either spread directly via the person-to-person route or indirectly through environmental surfaces or food, contaminated fomites and inanimate surfaces are important vehicles for the spread of the virus during norovirus outbreaks.
We developed and evaluated a protocol using macrofoam swabs for the detection and typing of human noroviruses from hard surfaces. Compared with fiber-tipped swabs or antistatic wipes, macrofoam swabs allow virus recovery (range 1.2-33.6%) from toilet seat surfaces of up to 700 cm2. The protocol includes steps for the extraction of the virus from the swabs and further concentration of the viral RNA using spin columns. In total, 127 (58.5%) of 217 swab samples that had been collected from surfaces in cruise ships and long-term care facilities where norovirus gastroenteritis had been reported tested positive for GII norovirus by RT-qPCR. Of these 29 (22.8%) could be successfully genotyped. In conclusion, detection of norovirus on environmental surfaces using the protocol we developed may assist in determining the level of environmental contamination during outbreaks as well as detection of virus when clinical samples are not available; it may also facilitate monitoring of effectiveness of remediation strategies.

A macrofoam based sampling methodology was developed and evaluated for the detection and quantification of norovirus on environmental hard surfaces.

Tampone Metodo di campionamento per la rilevazione di Norovirus umana sulle superfici

Human noroviruses are a leading cause of epidemic and sporadic gastroenteritis worldwide. Because most infections are either spread directly via the ...

A Method to Assess Fc-mediated Effector Functions Induced by Influenza Hemagglutinin Specific Antibodies

Antibodies play a crucial role in coupling the innate and adaptive immune responses against viral pathogens through their antigen binding domains and Fc-regions. Here, we describe how to measure the activation of Fc effector functions by monoclonal antibodies targeting the influenza virus hemagglutinin with the use of a genetically engineered Jurkat cell line expressing an activating type 1 Fc-Fc&#947;R. Using this method, the contribution of specific Fc-Fc&#947;R interactions conferred by immunoglobulins can be determined using an in vitro assay.

We describe a method to measure the activation of Fc-mediated effector functions by antibodies that target the influenza virus hemagglutinin. This assay can also be adapted to assess the ability of monoclonal antibodies or polyclonal sera targeting other viral surface glycoproteins to induce Fc-mediated immunity.

Un metodo per valutare le funzioni effettrici Fc-mediata indotte dagli anticorpi specifici di Hemagglutinin di riossidazione

Antibodies play a crucial role in coupling the innate and adaptive immune responses against viral pathogens through their antigen binding domains and ...

Isolating Lymphocytes from the Mouse Small Intestinal Immune System

The intestinal immune system plays an essential role in maintaining the barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract by generating tolerant responses to dietary antigens and commensal bacteria while mounting effective immune responses to enteropathogenic microbes. In addition, it has become clear that local intestinal immunity has a profound impact on distant and systemic immunity. Therefore, it is important to study how an intestinal immune response is induced and what the immunologic outcome of the response is. Here, a detailed protocol is described for the isolation of lymphocytes from small intestine inductive sites like the gut-associated lymphoid tissue Peyer&#39;s patches and the draining mesenteric lymph nodes and effector sites like the lamina propria and the intestinal epithelium. This technique ensures isolation of a large numbers of lymphocytes from small intestinal tissues with optimal purity and viability and minimal cross compartmental contamination within acceptable time constraints. The technical capability to isolate lymphocytes and other immune cells from intestinal tissues enables the understanding of immune responses to gastrointestinal infections, cancers, and inflammatory diseases.

Here we describe a detailed protocol for the isolation of lymphocytes from the inductive sites including the gut-associated lymphoid tissue Peyer&#39;s patches and the draining mesenteric lymph nodes, and the effector sites including the lamina propria and the intestinal epithelium of the small intestinal immune system.

Isolando i linfociti del sistema immunitario intestinale piccolo per Mouse

The intestinal immune system plays an essential role in maintaining the barrier function of the gastrointestinal tract by generating tolerant responses to ...

Preparation of Murine Submandibular Salivary Gland for Upright Intravital Microscopy

The submandibular salivary gland (SMG) is one of the three major salivary glands, and is of interest for many different fields of biological research, including cell biology, oncology, dentistry, and immunology. The SMG is an exocrine gland comprised of secretory epithelial cells, myofibroblasts, endothelial cells, nerves, and extracellular matrix. Dynamic cellular processes in the rat and mouse SMG have previously been imaged, mostly using inverted multi-photon microscope systems. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the surgical preparation and stabilization of the murine SMG in anesthetized mice for in vivo imaging with upright multi-photon microscope systems. We present representative intravital image sets of endogenous and adoptively transferred fluorescent cells, including the labeling of blood vessels or salivary ducts and second harmonic generation to visualize fibrillar collagen. In sum, our protocol allows for surgical preparation of mouse salivary glands in upright microscopy systems, which are commonly used for intravital imaging in the field of immunology.

We describe a protocol to surgically expose and stabilize the murine submandibular salivary gland for intravital imaging using upright intravital microscopy. This protocol is easily adaptable to other exocrine glands of the head and neck region of mice and other small rodents.

Preparazione della ghiandola salivare sottomandibolare murino per microscopia Intravital verticale

The submandibular salivary gland (SMG) is one of the three major salivary glands, and is of interest for many different fields of biological research, ...