Name: generation of 3d tumor spheroids for drug evaluation studies
Uploaded: 2023-02-24T13:20:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of 3D Tumor Spheroids for Drug Evaluation Studies at JoVE.com

We thank all the members of our laboratories for their critical input and suggestions. This research was supported by the Key Project of Jiangsu Commission of Health (K2019030). Conceptualization was conducted by C.W. and Z.C., the methodology was performed by W.H. and M.L., the investigation was performed by W.H. and M.L., the data curation was performed by W.H., Z.Z., S.X., and M.L., the original draft preparation was performed by Z.Z., J.Z., S.X., W.H., and X.L., the review and editing was performed by Z.C., project administration was performed by C.W. and Z.C., and funding acquisition was conducted by C.W. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

1. Spheroid construction
<ol>
	<li>Anti-adhesion treatment of the culture plate
	<ol>
		<li>Pipette 100 &#181;L of anti-adhesion reagent into each well of a 48-well plate with a U-shape well bottom, and keep for 10 min. After 10 min, aspirate the coating reagent, and wash twice with sterilized PBS.</li>
		<li>Put the culture plate in an incubator (37 &#176;C in humidified air with 5% CO2) until use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cell preparation, collection, and counting
	<ol>
		<li>Use the cultur...

<ol>
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I., Tannock, I. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drug+penetration+in+solid+tumours.">Drug penetration in solid tumours.</a> Nature Reviews Cancer. 6 (8), 583-592 (2006).</li><li>Baker, B. M., Chen, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deconstructing+the+third+dimension:+How+3D+culture+microenvironments+alter+cellular+cues.">Deconstructing the third dimension: How 3D culture microenvironments alter cellular cues.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 125 (13), 3015-3024 (2012).</li><li>Br&#252;ningk, S. C., Rivens, I., Box, C., Oelfke, U., Ter Haar, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tumour+spheroids+for+the+prediction+of+the+effects+of+radiation+and+hyperthermia+treatments.">3D tumour spheroids for the prediction of the effects of radiation and hyperthermia treatments.</a> Scientific Reports. 10, 1653 (2020).</li><li>Graves, E. E., Maity, A., Thu Le, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+tumor+microenvironment+in+non-small-cell+lung+cancer.">The tumor microenvironment in non-small-cell lung cancer.</a> Seminars in Radiation Oncology. 20 (3), 156-163 (2010).</li><li>Kunz-Schughart, L. A., Frreyer, J. 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(144), e59020 (2019).</li><li>Yazdanfar, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple+and+robust+image-baed+autofocusing+for+digital+microscopy.">Simple and robust image-baed autofocusing for digital microscopy.</a> Optics Express. 16 (12), 8670-8677 (2008).</li><li>Chen, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+evaluation+of+tumor+spheroid+behavior+in+3D+culture+using+deep+learning-based+recognition.">Automated evaluation of tumor spheroid behavior in 3D culture using deep learning-based recognition.</a> Biomaterials. 22 (272), 120770 (2021).</li><li>Boucherit, N., Gorvel, L., Olive, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tumor+models+and+their+use+for+the+testing+of+immunotherapies.">3D tumor models and their use for the testing of immunotherapies.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 11, 603640 (2020).</li><li>Anastasiou, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microenvironment+factors+shaping+the+cancer+metabolism+landscape.">Microenvironment factors shaping the cancer metabolism landscape.</a> British Journal of Cancer. 116 (3), 277-286 (2017).</li><li>Zhou, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functions+and+clinical+significance+of+mechanical+tumor+microenvironment:+Cancer+cell+sensing,+mechanobiology+and+metastasis.">Functions and clinical significance of mechanical tumor microenvironment: Cancer cell sensing, mechanobiology and metastasis.</a> Cancer Communications. 43 (5), 374-400 (2022).</li><li>Zhu, G. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+KRAS+cancers:+From+druggable+therapy+to+druggable+resistance.">Targeting KRAS cancers: From druggable therapy to druggable resistance.</a> Molecular Cancer. 21 (1), 159 (2022).</li><li>Ando, Y., Mariano, C., Shen, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineered+in+vitro+tumor+models+for+cell-based+immunotherapy.">Engineered in vitro tumor models for cell-based immunotherapy.</a> Acta Biomaterialia. 132, 345-359 (2021).</li><li>Timmins, N. E., Dietmair, S., Nielsen, L. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hanging-drop+multicellular+spheroids+as+a+model+of+tumor+angiogenesis.">Hanging-drop multicellular spheroids as a model of tumor angiogenesis.</a> Angiogenesis. 7 (2), 97-103 (2004).</li><li>Costa, E. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tumor+spheroids:+An+overview+on+the+tools+and+techniques+used+for+their+analysis.">3D tumor spheroids: An overview on the tools and techniques used for their analysis.</a> Biotechnology Advances. 34 (8), 1427-1441 (2016).</li><li>Sant, S., Johnston, P. 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The microenvironment plays an important role in tumor growth. It may affect the provision of extracellular matrices, oxygen gradients, nutrition, and mechanical interaction and, thus, affect gene expression, signal pathways, and many functions of tumor cells19,20,21. In many cases, 2D cells do not produce such effects or even produce opposite effects, thus affecting the evaluation of drug treatments. However, the emergence of 3D...

Cancer is one of the diseases most feared by human beings, not least because of its high mortality rate1. In recent years, the possibility of treating cancer has increased as new therapies have been introduced2,3,4,5. Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) in vitro models are used to study cancer in a laboratory setting. However, 2D models cannot immediately and accurately assess all of the important parameters that indicate antitumor sensitivity; therefore, they fail to fully represent in vivo interactions in drug therapy testing6.
Since 2020, the global three-dimensional (3D) culture market has been greatly boosted. According to one report from NASDAQ OMX, the global value of the 3D cell culture market will exceed USD 2.7 billion by the end of 2025. Compared with 2D culture methods, 3D cell culturing exhibits advantageous properties, which can be optimized not only for proliferation and differentiation but also for long-term survival7,8. By such means, in vivo cellular microenvironments can be simulated to obtain more accurate tumor characterization, as well as metabolic profiling, so that genomic and protein alterations can be better understood. Due to this, 3D test systems should now be included in mainstream drug development operations, especially those with a focus on screening and evaluating novel antitumor drugs. Three-dimensional growths of immortalized established cell lines or primary cell cultures in spheroid structures possess in vivo features of tumors such as hypoxia and drug penetration, as well as cell interaction, response, and resistance, and can be regarded as a stringent and representative model for performing in vitro drug screening9,10,11.
However, these 3D culture models also suffer from several problems that may take some time to solve. Cell spheroids can be formed using these protocols, but they differ in certain details, such as culture time or embedding gels12, so these constructed cell spheroids cannot be well controlled under a restricted size range. The size of the spheroids may influence the consistency of the viability test and imaging analysis. The growth microenvironments and growth factors also vary, which may lead to different morphologies due to differences in the differentiation among cells13. There is now an obvious need for a standard, simple, and cost-effective method for constructing all types of tumors with controlled sizes.
From another perspective, although homogeneous assays and high-content imaging approaches have been developed to evaluate morphology, viability, and growth rate, the high-throughput screening of 3D models remains a challenge for various reasons reported in the literature, such as the lack of uniformity in the position, size, and morphology of tumor spheroids14,15,16.
In the protocol presented here, we list each step in the construction of 3D tumor spheroids and describe a method for spheroid observation and analysis using a high-throughput, high-content imaging system that involves auto-focus, auto-imaging, and analysis, among other advantageous characteristics. We show how this method can produce 3D tumor spheroids of uniform size that are suitable for high-throughput imaging. These spheroids also demonstrate a high sensitivity to cancer drug treatment, and morphological changes in the spheroids can be monitored using high-content imaging. In summary, we demonstrate the robustness of this methodology as a means to generate 3D tumor constructs for drug evaluation purposes.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5-10 &#956;L Pipette tips</td>
			<td>AXYGEN</td>
			<td>T-300</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5&#160;mL Boil proof microtubes</td>
			<td>Axygen</td>
			<td>MCT-150-C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100-1000&#956;L Pipette tips</td>
			<td>KIRGEN</td>
			<td>KG1313</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL Centrifuge Tube</td>
			<td>Nest</td>
			<td>601052</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>200 &#956;L Pipette tips</td>
			<td>AXYGEN</td>
			<td>T-200-Y</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3D gel</td>
			<td>Avatarget</td>
			<td>MA02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>48-well U bottom Plate</td>
			<td>Avatarget</td>
			<td>P02-48UWP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL Centrifuge Tube</td>
			<td>Nest</td>
			<td>602052</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alamar Blue</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>&#160;DAL1100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Adherence Rinsing Solution</td>
			<td>STEMCELL</td>
			<td>#07010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Certified FBS</td>
			<td>BI</td>
			<td>04-001-1ACS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water</td>
			<td>aladdin</td>
			<td>W433884-500ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM (Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle Medium)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11965-092</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>sigma</td>
			<td>D2650-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excel sofware&#160;</td>
			<td>Microsoft office</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphpad prism sofware&#160;</td>
			<td>GraphPad software&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Content Microscope and SMART system</td>
			<td>Avatarget</td>
			<td>1-I01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image J software</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin-Transferrin-Selenium-A Supplement (100X)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>51300-044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>Bemis</td>
			<td>PM-996</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td>Solarbio</td>
			<td>P1020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/streptomycin Sol</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI 1640</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11875-093</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scientific Fluoroskan Ascent</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>Fluoroskan Ascent</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T25 Flask</td>
			<td>JET Biofil</td>
			<td>TCF012050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin, 0.25% (1X)</td>
			<td>Hyclone</td>
			<td>SH30042.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of 3d tumor spheroids for drug evaluation studies

In recent decades, in addition to monolayer-cultured cells, three-dimensional tumor spheroids have been developed as a potentially powerful tool for the evaluation of anticancer drugs. However, the conventional culture methods lack the ability to manipulate the tumor spheroids in a homogeneous manner at the three-dimensional level. To address this limitation, in this paper, we present a convenient and effective method of constructing average-sized tumor spheroids. Additionally, we describe a method of image-based analysis using artificial intelligence-based analysis software that can scan the whole plate and obtain data on three-dimensional spheroids. Several parameters were studied. By using a standard method of tumor spheroid construction and a high-throughput imaging and analysis system, the effectiveness and accuracy of drug tests performed on three-dimensional spheroids can be dramatically increased.

Figure 1A,B shows the process used for constructing tumor spheroids in this study. We first seeded the cells in a 48-well U-bottom plate. This step is almost the same as that used in 2D cell culture. We kept the plate in a common incubator with water surrounding the wells so that the deposited cells started to form spheroids in a self-assembly process. Under normal operational conditions, most types of tumor spheroids were completely formed after 5 days when a targeted mediu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of 3D Tumor Spheroids for Drug Evaluation Studies at JoVE.com

Generation of 3D Tumor Spheroids for Drug Evaluation Studies

This article demonstrates a standardized method for constructing three-dimensional tumor spheroids. A strategy for spheroid observation and image-based deep-learning analysis using an automated imaging system is also described.

In recent decades, in addition to monolayer-cultured cells, three-dimensional tumor spheroids have been developed as a potentially powerful tool for the ...

This protocol demonstrated a standardized method of constructing three-dimensional tumors of spheroids. And this methodology provided a high circuit and high content analysis of 3D tumor constructs. By using a standard method of tumorous spheroid construction and a high throughput imaging and analysis system, the effectiveness and accuracy of drug tests formed on three-dimensional spheroids can be dramatically increased.In this protocol, we used AMG510 to treat NCI-H23 spheroid as an example. From the experiment, we could observe a significant effect of cancerous targeted drug on the tumor spheroids. To begin, pipette 100 microliters of anti adhesion reagent into each well of a 48 well plate with a U-shaped well bottom and keep for 10 minutes.After 10 minutes, aspirate the coating reagent and wash twice with sterilized PBS. Place the culture plate in an incubator at 37 degrees Celsius in humidified air with 5%carbon dioxide until use. Observe the cells under the microscope.Then, wash the cells cultured in a T25 flask twice with PBS to remove the culture medium and treat the expanded cells with one milliliter of 0.25%trypsin EDTA for one to two minutes in an incubator at 37 degrees Celsius, 5%carbon dioxide. Confirm the cell shape under the microscope. And then stop the trypsin treatment by aspirating the used trypsin EDTA suspension in the T25 flask and washing the cells with four milliliters of fresh medium.Transfer all of the suspension to a 15 milliliter tube and use one milliliter of fresh medium to wash down the residual cells and add it to the tube. Centrifuge the cells at 186.48 G for five minutes at room temperature and discard the supernatant. Add 10 milliliters of fresh medium to the cell pellet and gently pipette until the cells are in a homogeneous suspension.Aspirate 0.1 milliliters of cell suspension into a new centrifuge tube. Add 0.9 milliliters of fresh medium and then pipette the suspension well. Extract 10 microliters of the cell suspension for cell counting.Repeat this process once or twice and take an average value. Dilute the suspension to reach a final seeding density of 50, 000 cells per milliliter. Next, add 200 microliters of the cell suspension to each well of a 48 well U-bottom plate.Wrap the sealing film around the plate and centrifuge it at 119.35 G for five minutes at room temperature. After centrifugation, pull off the protective film and add five to eight milliliters of sterilized water into the water channel surrounding the wells. Incubate the plate at 37 degrees Celsius for five days.Do not change or supplement any water to the water channel during this period and observe the cell aggregation during the following five days. For the gel embedding, after taking out the frozen gel from the minus 20 degrees Celsius fridge, place it on an ice box for the whole time during the experiment. Observe the cell spheroids under the microscope.Before the gel embedding begins, the status of the spheroids should again be checked. Carefully remove 150 microliters of the medium and embed each spheroid in the gel by slowly adding the liquid gel from the wall side of the well while moving the pre-cooled pipette tip around and inside the well. Wait for five minutes and if the gel does not spread evenly, gently pipette the gel with a 10 microliter pipette tip.Each well contains a tumor spheroid, 25 microliters of 3.5 milligrams per milliliter gel, and 50 microliters of complete culture medium. Add 75 microliters of medium to the controls as well. Incubate the plate at 37 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes until the hydrogelation is fully completed.Confirm the gelation status under the microscope. Overlay 125 microliters of fresh medium on each sample and culture the spheroids for another 7 to 10 days. Prepare groups of spheroids with four to six wells each and choose at least three of them for analysis.Dissolve the drug according to the manufacturer's instructions and prepare 100 fold working solutions with DMSO. Use 0.1%DMSO as a positive control and add 125 microliters of drug-treated medium to each well. Place the plate back into the incubator at 37 degrees Celsius in humidified air with 5%carbon dioxide.At this stage, each well contains a tumor spheroid, 25 microliters of 3.5 milligrams per milliliter gel, and 175 microliters of the medium. The controls contain 200 microliters of the medium. Measure the spheroid viability using an alamarBlue assay kit according to the manufacturer's guidelines.Aspirate 100 microliters of the supernatant medium from each well to a new test plate. Then, measure the viability using a microplate photometer. Measure it on day one, day four, day seven, and day 10 after embedding the spheroids in the gel.Add 80 microliters of fresh medium to each well of the culture plate. Then replace another 100 microliters of the drug-treated medium. Ensure there are no remains of alamarBlue in the well.Aspirate 100 microliters of the medium out before imaging and place the plate on the stage. Obtain digital images of the spheroids using an automated microscope with a tenfold objective. The microscope can focus and centralize these spheroids automatically.Wait for the automatic imaging. Four images are acquired for each spheroid. An integrated image is formed and processed with the software connected to the high content imaging system.Click on the image patch process button and choose the integrated images in the software. Choose U net model and type in the conversion rate. Click at the bottom of the screen to start the image processing.Save the diameter, perimeter, and roughness data in the spreadsheet software. Finally, add 100 microliters of fresh medium with the drug and place the plate back into the incubator at 37 degrees Celsius in humidified air with 5%carbon dioxide. The brightfield images of NCI-H23 cell spheroids treated with different concentrations of AMG510 and automatically captured by a high content microscope are shown in this figure.The columns represent different days and the rows represent different drug concentrations. The results include three spheroids for each condition. Tumor spheroid viability of the AMG510 treated sample groups was measured on day one, day four, day seven, and day 10.The terminal cell viability of the samples with concentration gradients is shown in this figure. The tumor spheroid diameters were measured on day one, day four, day seven, and day 10. The spheroid growth ratio was defined as the terminal volume relative to the original volume and calculated using the spheroid diameters.The spheroid growth inhibition ratio was defined relative to the volume and calculated using the spheroid diameters. The tumor roughness was measured by the software on day one, day four, day seven, and day 10, indicating the invasiveness of the tumor spheroids. The spheroid's perimeter was located and drawn by the software using deep learning algorithms.The spheroid areas at the focal plane were then measured by image J and an excess perimeter index was calculated based on these data. Although this message is easy to follow, the samples still need to be handled carefully.

generation-of-3d-tumor-spheroids-for-drug-evaluation-studies

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

In Vivo Model for Testing Effect of Hypoxia on Tumor Metastasis

Hypoxia has been implicated in the metastasis of Ewing sarcoma (ES) by clinical observations and in vitro data, yet direct evidence for its pro-metastatic effect is lacking and the exact mechanisms of its action are unclear. Here, we report an animal model that allows for direct testing of the effects of tumor hypoxia on ES dissemination and investigation into the underlying pathways involved. This approach combines two well-established experimental strategies, orthotopic xenografting of ES cells and femoral artery ligation (FAL), which induces hindlimb ischemia. Human ES cells were injected into the gastrocnemius muscles of SCID/beige mice and the primary tumors were allowed to grow to a size of 250 mm3. At this stage either the tumors were excised (control group) or the animals were subjected to FAL to create tumor hypoxia, followed by tumor excision 3 days later. The efficiency of FAL was confirmed by a significant increase in binding of hypoxyprobe-1 in the tumor tissue, severe tumor necrosis and complete inhibition of primary tumor growth. Importantly, despite these direct effects of ischemia, an enhanced dissemination of tumor cells from the hypoxic tumors was observed. This experimental strategy enables comparative analysis of the metastatic properties of primary tumors of the same size, yet significantly different levels of hypoxia. It also provides a new platform to further assess the mechanistic basis for the hypoxia-induced alterations that occur during metastatic tumor progression in vivo. In addition, while this model was established using ES cells, we anticipate that this experimental strategy can be used to test the effect of hypoxia in other sarcomas, as well as tumors orthotopically implanted in sites with a well-defined blood supply route.

In Vivo Model for Testing Effect of Hypoxia on Tumor Metastasis

This manuscript describes the development of an animal model that allows for the direct testing of the effects of tumor hypoxia on metastasis and the deciphering the mechanisms of its action. Although the experiments described here focus on Ewing sarcoma, a similar approach can be applied to other tumor types.

Hypoxia has been implicated in the metastasis of Ewing sarcoma (ES) by clinical observations and in vitro data, yet direct evidence for its pro-metastatic ...

Generation of High-Throughput Three-Dimensional Tumor Spheroids for Drug Screening

Cancer cells have routinely been cultured in two dimensions (2D) on a plastic surface. This technique, however, lacks the true environment a tumor mass is exposed to in vivo. Solid tumors grow not as a sheet attached to plastic, but instead as a collection of clonal cells in a three-dimensional (3D) space interacting with their neighbors, and with distinct spatial properties such as the disruption of normal cellular polarity. These interactions cause 3D-cultured cells to acquire morphological and cellular characteristics which are more relevant to in vivo tumors. Additionally, a tumor mass is in direct contact with other cell types such as stromal and immune cells, as well as the extracellular matrix from all other cell types. The matrix deposited is comprised of macromolecules such as collagen and fibronectin.
In an attempt to increase the translation of research findings in oncology from bench to bedside, many groups have started to investigate the use of 3D model systems in their drug development strategies. These systems are thought to be more physiologically relevant because they attempt to recapitulate the complex and heterogeneous environment of a tumor. These systems, however, can be quite complex, and, although amenable to growth in 96-well formats, and some now even in 384, they offer few choices for large-scale growth and screening. This observed gap has led to the development of the methods described here in detail to culture tumor spheroids in a high-throughput capacity in 1536-well plates. These methods represent a compromise to the highly complex matrix-based systems, which are difficult to screen, and conventional 2D assays. A variety of cancer cell lines harboring different genetic mutations are successfully screened, examining compound efficacy by using a curated library of compounds targeting the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase or MAPK pathway. The spheroid culture responses are then compared to the response of cells grown in 2D, and differential activities are reported. These methods provide a unique protocol for testing compound activity in a high-throughput 3D setting.

Across a wide variety of disease indications, more physiologically relevant models are being developed and implemented into drug discovery programs. The new model system described here demonstrates how three-dimensional tumor spheroids can be cultured and screened in a high-throughput 1536-well plate-based system to search for new oncology drugs.

Cancer cells have routinely been cultured in two dimensions (2D) on a plastic surface. This technique, however, lacks the true environment a tumor mass is ...

Paramyxoviruses for Tumor-targeted Immunomodulation: Design and Evaluation Ex Vivo

Successful cancer immunotherapy has the potential to achieve long-term tumor control. Despite recent clinical successes, there remains an urgent need for safe and effective therapies tailored to individual tumor immune profiles. Oncolytic viruses enable the induction of anti-tumor immune responses as well as tumor-restricted gene expression. This protocol describes the generation and ex vivo analysis of immunomodulatory oncolytic vectors. Focusing on measles vaccine viruses encoding bispecific T cell engagers as an example, the general methodology can be adapted to other virus species and transgenes. The presented workflow includes the design, cloning, rescue, and propagation of recombinant viruses. Assays to analyze replication kinetics and lytic activity of the vector as well as functionality of the isolated immunomodulator ex vivo are included, thus facilitating the generation of novel agents for further development in preclinical models and ultimately clinical translation.

This protocol describes a detailed workflow for the generation and ex vivo characterization of oncolytic viruses for expression of immunomodulators, using measles viruses encoding bispecific T cell engagers as an example. Application and adaptation to other vector platforms and transgenes will accelerate the development of novel immunovirotherapeutics for clinical translation.

Successful cancer immunotherapy has the potential to achieve long-term tumor control. Despite recent clinical successes, there remains an urgent need for ...

Real Time Detection of In Vitro Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by CD8+ T Cells to Study Immune Suppressive Functions of Tumor-infiltrating Myeloid Cells

Potentiation of the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells in tumors, along with their efficient tumor infiltration, is a key element of successful immunotherapies. Several studies have indicated that tumor infiltrating myeloid cells (e.g., myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs)) suppress cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells in the tumor microenvironment, and that targeting these regulatory myeloid cells can improve immunotherapies. Here, we present an in vitro assay system to evaluate immune suppressive effects of monocytic-MDSCs and TAMs on the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells. To this end, we first cultured na&#239;ve splenic CD8+ T cells with anti-CD3/CD28 activating antibodies in the presence or absence of suppressor cells, and then co-cultured the pre-activated T cells with target cancer cells in the presence of a fluorogenic caspase-3 substrate. Fluorescence from the substrate in cancer cells was detected by real-time fluorescence microscopy as an indicator of T-cell induced tumor cell apoptosis. In this assay, we can successfully detect the increase of tumor cell apoptosis by CD8+ T cells and its suppression by pre-culture with TAMs or MDSCs. This functional assay is useful for investigating CD8+ T cell suppression mechanisms by regulatory myeloid cells and identifying druggable targets to overcome it via high throughput screening.

Real Time Detection of In Vitro Tumor Cell Apoptosis Induced by CD8+ T Cells to Study Immune Suppressive Functions of Tumor-infiltrating Myeloid Cells

We describe here a protocol to investigate cytotoxicity of pre-activated CD8+ T cells against cancer cells by detecting apoptotic cancer cells via real-time microscopy. This protocol can investigate mechanisms behind myeloid cell-induced T cell suppression and evaluate compounds aimed at replenishing T cells via blockade of immune suppressive myeloid cells.

Potentiation of the tumor-killing ability of CD8+ T cells in tumors, along with their efficient tumor infiltration, is a key element of successful ...

Longitudinal Morphological and Physiological Monitoring of Three-dimensional Tumor Spheroids Using Optical Coherence Tomography

Tumor spheroids have been developed as a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture model in cancer research and anti-cancer drug discovery. However, currently, high-throughput imaging modalities utilizing bright field or fluorescence detection, are unable to resolve the overall 3D structure of the tumor spheroid due to limited light penetration, diffusion of fluorescent dyes and depth-resolvability. Recently, our lab demonstrated the use of optical coherence tomography (OCT), a label-free and non-destructive 3D imaging modality, to perform longitudinal characterization of multicellular tumor spheroids in a 96-well plate. OCT was capable of obtaining 3D morphological and physiological information of tumor spheroids growing up to about 600 &#181;m in height. In this article, we demonstrate a high-throughput OCT (HT-OCT) imaging system that scans the whole multi-well plate and obtains 3D OCT data of tumor spheroids automatically. We describe the details of the HT-OCT system and construction guidelines in the protocol. From the 3D OCT data, one can visualize the overall structure of the spheroid with 3D rendered and orthogonal slices, characterize the longitudinal growth curve of the tumor spheroid based on the morphological information of size and volume, and monitor the growth of the dead-cell regions in the tumor spheroid based on optical intrinsic attenuation contrast. We show that HT-OCT can be used as a high-throughput imaging modality for drug screening as well as characterizing biofabricated samples.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT), a three-dimensional imaging technology, was used to monitor and characterize the growth kinetics of multicellular tumor spheroids. Precise volumetric quantification of tumor spheroids using a voxel counting approach, and label-free dead tissue detection in the spheroids based on intrinsic optical attenuation contrast, were demonstrated.

Tumor spheroids have been developed as a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture model in cancer research and anti-cancer drug discovery. However, currently, ...

Physiologic Patient Derived 3D Spheroids for Anti-neoplastic Drug Screening to Target Cancer Stem Cells

In this protocol, we outline the procedure for generation of tumor spheroids within 384-well hanging droplets to allow for high-throughput screening of anti-cancer therapeutics in a physiologically representative microenvironment. We outline the formation of patient derived cancer stem cell spheroids, as well as, the manipulation of these spheroids for thorough analysis following drug treatment. Specifically, we describe collection of spheroid morphology, proliferation, viability, drug toxicity, cell phenotype and cell localization data. This protocol focuses heavily on analysis techniques that are easily implemented using the 384-well hanging drop platform, making it ideal for high throughput drug screening. While we emphasize the importance of this model in ovarian cancer studies and cancer stem cell research, the 384-well platform is amenable to research of other cancer types and disease models, extending the utility of the platform to many fields. By improving the speed of personalized drug screening and the quality of screening results through easily implemented physiologically representative 3D cultures, this platform is predicted to aid in the development of new therapeutics and patient-specific treatment strategies, and thus have wide-reaching clinical impact.

This protocol describes generation of patient-derived spheroids, and downstream analysis including quantification of proliferation, cytotoxicity testing, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining and confocal imaging, in order to assess drug candidates&#8217; potential as anti-neoplastic therapeutics. This protocol supports precision medicine with identification of specific drugs for each patient and stage of disease.

In this protocol, we outline the procedure for generation of tumor spheroids within 384-well hanging droplets to allow for high-throughput screening of ...

Establishment and Characterization of Small Bowel Neuroendocrine Tumor Spheroids

Small bowel neuroendocrine tumors (SBNETs) are rare cancers originating from enterochromaffin cells of the gut. Research in this field has been limited because very few patient derived SBNET cell lines have been generated. Well-differentiated SBNET cells are slow growing and are hard to propagate. The few cell lines that have been established are not readily available, and after time in culture may not continue to express characteristics of NET cells. Generating new cell lines could take many years since SBNET cells have a long doubling time and many enrichment steps are needed in order to eliminate the rapidly dividing cancer-associated fibroblasts. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a protocol to culture SBNET cells from surgically removed tumors as spheroids in extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM forms a 3-dimensional matrix that encapsulates SBNET cells and mimics the tumor micro-environment for allowing SBNET cells to grow. Here, we characterized the growth rate of SBNET spheroids and described methods to identify SBNET markers using immunofluorescence microscopy and immunohistochemistry to confirm that the spheroids are neuroendocrine tumor cells. In addition, we used SBNET spheroids for testing the cytotoxicity of rapamycin.

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) originate from neuroendocrine cells of the neural crest. They are slow growing and challenging to culture. We present an alternative strategy to grow NETs from the small bowel by culturing them as spheroids. These spheroids have small bowel NET markers and can be used for drug testing.

Small bowel neuroendocrine tumors (SBNETs) are rare cancers originating from enterochromaffin cells of the gut. Research in this field has been limited ...

A Novel Stromal Fibroblast-Modulated 3D Tumor Spheroid Model for Studying Tumor-Stroma Interaction and Drug Discovery

Tumor-stroma interactions play an important role in cancer progression. Three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid models are the most widely used in vitro model in the study of cancer stem/initiating cells, preclinical cancer research, and drug screening. The 3D spheroid models are superior to conventional tumor cell culture and reproduce some important characters of real solid tumors. However, conventional 3D tumor spheroids are made up exclusively of tumor cells. They lack the participation of tumor stromal cells and have insufficient extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, thus only partially mimicking the in vivo conditions of tumor tissues. We established a new multicellular 3D spheroid model composed of tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts that better mimics the in vivo heterogeneous tumor microenvironment and its native desmoplasia. The formation of spheroids is strictly regulated by the tumor stromal fibroblasts and is determined by the activity of certain crucial intracellular signaling pathways (e.g., Notch signaling) in stromal fibroblasts. In this article, we present the techniques for coculture of tumor cells-stromal fibroblasts, time-lapse imaging to visualize cell-cell interactions, and confocal microscopy to display the 3D architectural features of the spheroids. We also show two examples of the practical application of this 3D spheroid model. This novel multicellular 3D spheroid model offers a useful platform for studying tumor-stroma interaction, elucidating how stromal fibroblasts regulate cancer stem/initiating cells, which determine tumor progression and aggressiveness, and exploring involvement of stromal reaction in cancer drug sensitivity and resistance. This platform can also be a pertinent in vitro model for drug discovery.

A novel three-dimensional spheroid model based on the heterotypic interaction of tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts is established. Here, we present coculture of tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts, time-lapse imaging, and confocal microscopy to visualize the formation of spheroids. This three-dimensional model offers a pertinent platform to study tumor-stroma interactions and test cancer therapeutics.

Tumor-stroma interactions play an important role in cancer progression. Three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid models are the most widely used in vitro ...

Generation of Zebrafish Larval Xenografts and Tumor Behavior Analysis

Zebrafish larval xenografts are being widely used for cancer research to perform in vivo and real-time studies of human cancer. The possibility of rapidly visualizing the response to anti-cancer therapies (chemo, radiotherapy, and biologicals), angiogenesis and metastasis with single cell resolution, places the zebrafish xenograft model as a top choice to develop preclinical studies.

The zebrafish larval xenograft assay presents several experimental advantages compared to other models, but probably the most striking is the reduction of size scale and consequently time. This reduction of scale allows single cell imaging, the use of a relatively low number of human cells (compatible with biopsies), medium-high-throughput drug screenings, but most importantly enables a significant reduction of the time of the assay. All these advantages make the zebrafish xenograft assay extremely attractive for future personalized medicine applications.

Many zebrafish xenograft protocols have been developed with a wide diversity of human tumors; however, a general and standardized protocol to efficiently generate zebrafish larval xenografts is still lacking. Here we provide a step-by-step protocol, with tips to generate xenografts and guidelines for tumor behavior analysis, whole-mount immunofluorescence, and confocal imaging quantification.

Here, we provide a step-by-step protocol, with tips to generate xenografts and guidelines for tumor behavior analysis, whole-mount immunofluorescence, and confocal imaging quantification.

Zebrafish larval xenografts are being widely used for cancer research to perform in vivo and real-time studies of human cancer. The possibility of rapidly ...

Exploring Mitochondrial Energy Metabolism of Single 3D Microtissue Spheroids Using Extracellular Flux Analysis

Three-dimensional (3D) cellular aggregates, termed spheroids, have become the forefront of in vitro cell culture in recent years. In contrast to culturing cells as two-dimensional, single-cell monolayers (2D culture), spheroid cell culture promotes, regulates, and supports physiological cellular architecture and characteristics that exist in vivo, including the expression of extracellular matrix proteins, cell signaling, gene expression, protein production, differentiation, and proliferation. The importance of 3D culture has been recognized in many research fields, including oncology, diabetes, stem cell biology, and tissue engineering. Over the last decade, improved methods have been developed to produce spheroids and assess their metabolic function and fate.
Extracellular flux (XF) analyzers have been used to explore mitochondrial function in 3D microtissues such as spheroids using either an XF24 islet capture plate or an XFe96 spheroid microplate. However, distinct protocols and the optimization of probing mitochondrial energy metabolism in spheroids using XF technology have not been described in detail. This paper provides detailed protocols for probing mitochondrial energy metabolism in single 3D spheroids using spheroid microplates with the XFe96 XF analyzer. Using different cancer cell lines, XF technology is demonstrated to be capable of distinguishing between cellular respiration in 3D spheroids of not only different sizes but also different volumes, cell numbers,&#160;DNA content and type.
The optimal mitochondrial effector compound concentrations of oligomycin, BAM15, rotenone, and antimycin A are used to probe specific parameters of mitochondrial energy metabolism in 3D spheroids. This paper also discusses methods to normalize data obtained from spheroids and addresses many considerations that should be considered when exploring spheroid metabolism using XF technology. This protocol will help drive research in advanced in vitro spheroid models.

These protocols will help users probe mitochondrial energy metabolism in 3D cancer cell-line-derived spheroids using Seahorse extracellular flux analysis.

Three-dimensional (3D) cellular aggregates, termed spheroids, have become the forefront of in vitro cell culture in recent years. In contrast to culturing ...