Name: intestinal epithelial regeneration in response to ionizing irradiation
Uploaded: 2022-07-27T14:05:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intestinal Epithelial Regeneration in Response to Ionizing Irradiation at JoVE.com

The authors wish to acknowledge the Stony Brook Cancer Center Histology Research Core for expert assistance with tissue specimen preparation and the Division of Laboratory Animal Resources at Stony Brook University for assistance with animal care and handling. This work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health DK124342 awarded to Agnieszka B. Bialkowska and DK052230 to Dr. Vincent W. Yang.

All mice were housed in the Division of Laboratory Animal Resources (DLAR) at Stony Brook University. The Stony Brook University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) approved all studies and procedures involving animal subjects. Experiments involving animal subjects were conducted strictly in accordance with the approved animal handling protocol (IACUC #245094).
NOTE: Mouse strains B6;129-Bmi1tm1(cre/ERT)Mrc/J (Bmi1-CreER) and B6.129X1-<em...

This protocol describes a robust and reproducible radiation injury model. It allows for the precise analysis of the changes in the intestinal epithelium over the course of 7 days post injury. Importantly, the selected time points reflect crucial stages of injury and are characterized by distinct alterations to the intestine (injury, apoptosis, regeneration, and normalization phases)60. This model of irradiation has been established and carefully assessed, demonstrating a suitable manifestation of ...

The human intestinal epithelium would cover approximately the surface of half a badminton court if placed completely flat1. Instead, this single cell layer separating humans from the contents of their guts is compacted into a series of finger-like projections, villi, and indentations, crypts that maximize the surface area of the intestines. The cells of the epithelium differentiate along a crypt-villus axis. The villus primarily consists of nutrient-absorbing enterocytes, mucus-secreting goblet cells, and the hormone-producing enteroendocrine cells, while the crypts primarily consist of defensin-producing Paneth cells, active and reserve stem cells, and progenitor cells2,3,4,5. Furthermore, the bi-directional communication these cells have with the stromal and immune cells of the underlying mesenchymal compartment and the microbiota of the lumen generate a complex network of interactions that maintains gut homeostasis and is critical to recovery after injury6,7,8.
The intestinal epithelium is the most rapidly self-renewing tissue in the human body, with a turnover rate of 2-6 days9,10,11. During homeostasis, active stem cells at the base of intestinal crypts (crypt base columnar cells), marked by the expression of leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 5 (LGR5), rapidly divide and provide progenitor cells that differentiate into all other intestinal epithelial lineages. However, owing to their high mitotic rate, active stem cells and their immediate progenitors are particularly sensitive to gamma-radiation injury and undergo apoptosis following irradiation5,12,13,14. Upon their loss, reserve stem cells and non-stem cells (subpopulation of progenitors and some terminally differentiated cells) within intestinal crypts undergo activation and replenish the basal crypt compartment, which can then reconstitute cell populations of the villi and, thus, regenerate the intestinal epithelium15. Using lineage tracing techniques, multiple research groups have demonstrated that reserve (quiescent) stem cells are capable of supporting regeneration upon the loss of active stem cells13,16,17,18,19,20,21,22. These cells are characterized by the presence of polycomb complex protein 1 oncogene (Bmi1), mouse telomerase reverse transcriptase gene (mTert), Hop homeobox (Hopx), and leucine-rich repeat protein 1 gene (Lrig1). In addition, it has been shown that non-stem cells are capable of replenishing intestinal crypts upon injury23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31. In particular, it has been shown that progenitors of secretory cells and enterocytes undergo dedifferentiation upon injury, revert to stem-like cells, and support the regeneration of the intestinal epithelium. Recent studies have identified cells expressing multiple markers that possess the capacity of acquiring stem-like characteristics upon injury (such as DLL+, ATOH1+, PROX1+, MIST1+,&#160;DCLK1+)32,33,34,35,36. Surprisingly, Yu et al. showed that even mature Paneth cells (LYZ+) can contribute to intestinal regeneration37. Furthermore, in addition to causing apoptosis of intestinal epithelial cells and disrupting epithelial barrier function, irradiation results in dysbiosis of the gut flora, immune cell activation and the initiation of a pro-inflammatory response, and the activation of mesenchymal and stromal cells38,39.
Gamma radiation is a valuable therapeutic tool in cancer treatment, especially so for colorectal tumors40. However, irradiation significantly affects intestinal homeostasis by inducing damage to the cells, which leads to apoptosis. Radiation exposure causes multiple perturbations that slow down a patient&#39;s recovery and is marked by mucosal injury and inflammation in the acute phase and diarrhea, incontinence, bleeding, and abdominal pain long term. This panoply of manifestations is referred to as gastrointestinal radiation toxicity. Additionally, radiation-induced progression of transmural fibrosis and/or vascular sclerosis may only manifest years after the treatment38,41. Simultaneous to the injury itself, radiation induces a repair response in intestinal cells that activates signaling pathways responsible for initiating and orchestrating regeneration42. Radiation-induced small bowel disease can originate from pelvic or abdominal radiotherapy provided to other organs (such as cervix, prostate, pancreas, rectum)41,43,44,45,46. Intestinal irradiation injury is, thus, a significant clinical issue, and a better understanding of the resulting pathophysiology is likely to advance the development of interventions to alleviate the gastrointestinal complications associated with radiotherapy. There are other techniques that allow for investigating the regenerative purpose of the intestinal epithelium apart from radiation. Transgenic and chemical murine models to study inflammation and the regeneration thereafter have been developed47. Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) induces inflammation in the intestine and leads to the development of characteristics similar to those of inflammatory bowel disease48. A combination of DSS treatment with the pro-carcinogenic compound azoxymethane (AOM) can result in the development of colitis-associated cancer48,49. Ischemia reperfusion-induced injury is another method employed to study the regenerative potential of the intestinal epithelium. This technique requires experience and surgical knowledge50. Furthermore, the aforementioned techniques cause different types of injury than radiation and may lead to the involvement of different mechanisms of regeneration. In addition, these models are time-consuming, while the radiation technique is fairly brief. Recently, in vitro methods utilizing enteroids and colonoids generated from the intestine and colon have been used in combination with radiation injury to study the mechanisms of intestinal regeneration51,52. However, these techniques do not fully recapitulate the organ they model53,54.
The protocol presented includes the description of a murine model of gamma-radiation injury in combination with a genetic model that, following tamoxifen treatment, permits tracing of lineages originating from the reserve stem cell population (Bmi1-CreER;Rosa26eYFP). This model utilizes a 12 Gy total-body irradiation, which induces significant enough intestinal injury to activate reserve stem cells while still allowing for the subsequent investigation of intestinal regenerative capability within 7 days of injury55.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mL syringe</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>309659</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>16G Reusable Small Animal Feeding Needles: Straight</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20068-630</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>27G x 1/2&#34; needle</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>305109</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>28G x 1/2&#34; Monoject 1mL insulin syringe</td>
			<td>Covidien</td>
			<td>1188128012</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-Ethynyl-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine (EdU)</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc284628A</td>
			<td>10 mg/mL in sterile DMSO:water (1:4 v/v), aliquot and store in -20&#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Azer Scientific&#160;10% Neutral Buffered Formalin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22-026-213</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6.129X1-Gt(ROSA)26Sortm1(EYFP)Cos/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>Strain #:006148</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6;129-Bmi1tm1(cre/ERT)Mrc/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>Strain #:010531</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin Fraction V, heat shock</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>3116956001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chicken anti-GFP</td>
			<td>Aves</td>
			<td>GFP-1020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Click-IT plus EdU Alexa Fluor 555 imaging kit, Invitrogen</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C10638</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corn oil</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>C8267</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Decloaking Chamber</td>
			<td>Biocare Medical</td>
			<td>DC2012</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Fisher BioReagents</td>
			<td>BP231-100</td>
			<td>light sensitive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNase-free proteinase K</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>C10618H</td>
			<td>diluted 25x in DPBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-chicken AF647</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>703-605-155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPBS</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>21-031-CV</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eosin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S176</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence Microscope Nikon Eclipse 90i Bright and fluoerescent light, with objectives: 10X, 20X</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluoromount Aqueous Mounting Medium</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>F4680-25ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gamma Cell 40 Exactor</td>
			<td>Best Theratronics Ltd.</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>0.759 Gy min-1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-rabbit AF488</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>111-545-144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin Solution, Gill No. 3</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>GHS332</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HM 325 Rotary Microtome from Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>23-900-668</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hoechst 33258, Pentahydrate (bis-Benzimide)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>H3569</td>
			<td>dilution 1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrogen Peroxide Solution, ACS, 29-32%, Spectrum Chemical</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18-603-252</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit, Fluorescein (Roche)</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>11684795910</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid Blocker Super PAP PEN, Mini</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>DAI-PAP-S-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lithium Carbonate (Powder/Certified ACS), Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>L119-500</td>
			<td>0.5g/1L dH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luer-Lok Syringe sterile, single use, 10 mL</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89215-218</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>BDH1135-4LP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pharmco Products&#160;Ethyl alcohol, 200 PROOF</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC1675398</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pharmco-Aaper 281000ACSCSLT Acetic Acid ACS Grade</td>
			<td>Capitol Scientific</td>
			<td>AAP-281000ACSCSLT</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-Ki67</td>
			<td>BioCare Medical</td>
			<td>CRM325</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Richard-Allan Scientific Cytoseal XYL Mounting Medium</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22-050-262</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scientific Industries Incubator-Genie for baking slides at 65 degree</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50-728-103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Citrate Dihydrate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S279-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless Steel Dissecting Kit</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>25640-002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superfrost Plus micro slides [size: 25 x 75 x 1 mm]</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>&#160;48311-703</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tamoxifen</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>T5648</td>
			<td>30 mg/mL in sterile corn oil, preferably fresh or short-sterm storage in -20&#176;C, light sensitive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek 24-Slide Holders with Detachable Handle</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>4465</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek&#160;Accu-Edge&#160;Low Profile Blades</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>4689</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek&#160;Manual Slide Staining Set</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>4451</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek Staining Dish, Green with Lid</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>4456</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue-Tek Staining Dish, White with Lid</td>
			<td>Sakura</td>
			<td>4457</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween 20</td>
			<td>Millipore-Sigma</td>
			<td>P7949</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Unisette Processing Cassettes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>87002-292</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VWR Micro Cover Glasses</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48393-081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>X5P-1GAL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

intestinal epithelial regeneration in response to ionizing irradiation

The intestinal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells yet contains multiple types of terminally differentiated cells, which are generated by the active proliferation of intestinal stem cells located at the bottom of intestinal crypts. However, during events of acute intestinal injury, these active intestinal stem cells undergo cell death. Gamma irradiation is a widely used colorectal cancer treatment, which, while therapeutically efficacious, has the side effect of depleting the active stem cell pool. Indeed, patients frequently experience gastrointestinal radiation syndrome while undergoing radiotherapy, in part due to active stem cell depletion. The loss of active intestinal stem cells in intestinal crypts activates a pool of typically quiescent reserve intestinal stem cells and induces dedifferentiation of secretory and enterocyte precursor cells. If not for these cells, the intestinal epithelium would lack the ability to recover from radiotherapy and other such major tissue insults. New advances in lineage-tracing technologies allow tracking of the activation, differentiation, and migration of cells during regeneration and have been successfully employed for studying this in the gut. This study aims to depict a method for the analysis of cells within the mouse intestinal epithelium following radiation injury.

The use of 12 Gy total-body irradiation (TBI) in combination with murine genetic lineage tracing allows for a thorough analysis of the consequences of radiation injury in the gut. To start, Bmi1-CreER;Rosa26eYFP&#160;mice received a single tamoxifen injection, which induces enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) expression within a Bmi1+ reserve stem cell population. Two days subsequent to the tamoxifen injection, the mice underwent irradiation or sham irradiation. Three hour...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intestinal Epithelial Regeneration in Response to Ionizing Irradiation at JoVE.com

Intestinal Epithelial Regeneration in Response to Ionizing Irradiation

The gastrointestinal tract is one of the most sensitive organs to injury upon radiotherapeutic cancer treatments. It is simultaneously an organ system with one of the highest regenerative capacities following such insults. The presented protocol describes an efficient method to study the regenerative capacity of the intestinal epithelium.

The intestinal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells yet contains multiple types of terminally differentiated cells, which are generated by the ...

Gamma irradiation is a widely used treatment for colorectal cancer. And while it is therapeutically efficacious, it has negative effects on gastrointestinal tract. The presented protocol describes an efficient method to study the activation, differentiation, and migration of cells during regeneration after radiation injury.This protocol describes a robust and reproducible radiation injury model. Importantly, this model allows to track intestinal cell fate following injury and thus provides better understanding of regenerative capacity of specific cell subpopulation. This technique can employ distinct lineage-tracing animal models to study the realtime behavior and the interaction of various subpopulations of cells post-injury.Minor modifications to this protocol should allow for the investigation of the relationships between microbiota and different epithelial, stromal, and immune cell populations upon radiation injury. To begin, resuspend tamoxifen powder in sterile corn oil at a concentration of 30 micrograms per microliter. Sonicate for three minutes in 30 seconds on-off cycles with 60%amplitude.Mix by rotation in the dark for one hour at room temperature. Then, prepare EdU by adding sterile DMSO to EdU powder. Add 1/5 of the total volume, and slowly add the remaining volume of sterile ultrapure water.When completely dissolved, aliquot and store at 20 degrees Celsius. Prepare reagents for tissue collection and fixation, such as 70%ethanol in water, DPBS chilled to four degrees Celsius, Bouin's fixative buffer, and 10%buffered formalin. Next, prepare the necessary equipment, such as a mice dissection kit, Petri dishes, a 16-gauge gavage needle attached to a 10-milliliter syringe and histological cassettes.Two days prior to gamma irradiation exposure, prepare the experimental animals for tamoxifen injection. Weigh each animal, and calculate the required dosage. Disinfect the abdominal area with 70%ethanol.Then, administer a single dose of tamoxifen intraperitoneally using a 27-gauge needle attached to a one-milliliter syringe to induce Cre-mediated recombination. Observe animals for the next 48 hours to exclude potential tamoxifen toxicity. After 48 hours, transfer the animals to the irradiation room.Disinfect the sample chamber in the gamma irradiator with 70%ethanol solution. Place the absorbent mat and animals inside the sample chamber. Place the lid, and close the chamber.Program the gamma irradiator to expose animals to 12 gray total body irradiation. Then, turn the key to the start position, and press start to initiate the exposure. Leave the room for active exposure time.After the preset time has elapsed, the machine will stop automatically and will start beeping. Turn off the machine by turning the key into the stop position. Open the sample chamber, and take off the lid.Transfer the animals to the cage, and disinfect the sample chamber with 70%ethanol. Transfer the animals back to the conventional housing room, and observe their condition post-treatment. Monitor the weight of the animals every day.Three hours prior to the planned euthanasia, disinfect the abdominal area, and inject the mice intraperitoneally with 100 microliters of EdU stock solution using a 28-gauge insulin syringe. After euthanizing the animal, collect the proximal intestines at different time points post-irradiation. Dissect the proximal part of the small intestine, and remove attached tissues.Flush the tissue with cold DPBS using a 16-gauge straight feeding needle attached to a 10-milliliter syringe, and fix the tissue with Bouin's fixative buffer. Cut the intestines open longitudinally, and roll the proximal intestines using the Swiss-roll technique. Place the tissues in a histological cassette in a container with 10%buffered formalin, and incubate it for 24 to 48 hours at room temperature.After incubation, transfer the histological cassettes to 70%ethanol, and embed the tissue in paraffin. After embedding, place the histological cassettes on ice for at least one hour. Then, cut five-micron-thick horizontal sections using a microtome.Transfer the tissue sections to a water bath warmed up to 45 degrees Celsius, and place the sections on charged slides. Leave the slides on a rack overnight at room temperature to dry. Hematoxylin and eosin images of small intestine specimens showed a homeostatic intestinal epithelium at zero hour, followed by the loss of cells within crypt compartments during the apoptotic phase.This was followed by the regenerative phase in which highly proliferative cells populated the crypts, leading to the normalization phase by day seven. Lineage tracing by EYFP showed that during homeostasis, the cells originating from Bmi1 positive reserve stem cells were restricted to the plus four to plus six positions within crypts. EdU and Ki-67 staining showed normal intestinal homeostasis in sham irradiated mice, extending from active stem cells through the transit-amplifying zone.During the apoptotic phase, the number of EYFP-positive cells decreased, accompanied by a loss of proliferative cells caused by radiation damage. In the regenerative phase, activation of reserve stem cells and rapid proliferation of Bmi1-positive cells was observed. Further proliferation and migration restored intestinal epithelium integrity.TUNEL staining showed that apoptotic cells are absent during homeostasis. An increase in TUNEL staining was observed late in the apoptotic phase. During the regenerative phase, TUNEL staining steadily decreased within the regenerating crypts and was nearly absent when the crypts normalized.This technique can be combined with RNA sequencing, single-cell RNA sequencing, fluorescence-activated cell sorting, or proteomic analysis to glean more in-depth knowledge about the role of specific cell lineages during intestinal regeneration following injury. The researchers can investigate the interactions between microbiota and epithelial, stromal, and immune cell populations in gut regeneration to expand the understanding of the regenerative capability of the intestinal epithelium.

intestinal-epithelial-regeneration-in-response-to-ionizing-irradiation

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Cortical Neurogenesis: Transitioning from Advances in the Laboratory to Cell-Based Therapies

Quantification of &gamma;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming &gamma;H2AX1. Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB2,3. This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning ~2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete &gamma;H2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. The loss of &gamma;H2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary4-8. The disappearence of &gamma;H2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C5,6. Further, removal of &gamma;H2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated7,8. Importantly, the quantitative analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in &gamma;-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes9.

Quantification of &amp;#947;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

Quantification of DNA double-strand streaks using &gamma;H2AX formation as a molecular marker has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we demonstrate the use of an immunofluorescence assay for quantification of &gamma;H2AX foci after exposure of cells to radiation.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA ...

Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &gamma;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone H2AX1,2. This phosphorylation of H2AX is mediated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PI3K) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)3. The phosphorylated form of H2AX, referred to as &gamma;H2AX, spreads to adjacent regions of chromatin from the site of the DSB, forming discrete foci, which are easily visualized by immunofluorecence microscopy3. Analysis and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci has been widely used to evaluate DSB formation and repair, particularly in response to ionizing radiation and for evaluating the efficacy of various radiation modifying compounds and cytotoxic compounds4.
Given the exquisite specificity and sensitivity of this de novo marker of DSBs, it has provided new insights into the processes of DNA damage and repair in the context of chromatin. For example, in radiation biology the central paradigm is that the nuclear DNA is the critical target with respect to radiation sensitivity. Indeed, the general consensus in the field has largely been to view chromatin as a homogeneous template for DNA damage and repair. However, with the use of &gamma;H2AX as molecular marker of DSBs, a disparity in &gamma;-irradiation-induced &gamma;H2AX foci formation in euchromatin and heterochromatin has been observed5-7. Recently, we used a panel of antibodies to either mono-, di- or tri- methylated histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me1, H3K9me2, H3K9me3) which are epigenetic imprints of constitutive heterochromatin and transcriptional silencing and lysine 4 (H3K4me1, H3K4me2, H3K4me3), which are tightly correlated actively transcribing euchromatic regions, to investigate the spatial distribution of &gamma;H2AX following ionizing radiation8. In accordance with the prevailing ideas regarding chromatin biology, our findings indicated a close correlation between &gamma;H2AX formation and active transcription9. Here we demonstrate our immunofluorescence method for detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in non-adherent cells, with a particular focus on co-localization with other epigenetic markers, image analysis and 3D-modeling.

Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &amp;#947;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

Microscopic analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci, which form following the phosphorylation of H2AX at Ser-139 in response to DNA double-strand breaks, has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we used an antibody to mono-methylated histone H3 at lysine 4 as an epigenetic marker of actively transcribing euchromatin, to evaluate the spatial distribution of radiation-induced &gamma;H2AX formation within the nucleus.

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone ...

A System for Culturing Iris Pigment Epithelial Cells to Study Lens Regeneration in Newt

Salamanders like newt and axolotl possess the ability to regenerate many of its lost body parts such as limbs, the tail with spinal cord, eye, brain, heart, the jaw 1. Specifically, newts are unique for its lens regeneration capability. Upon lens removal, IPE cells of the dorsal iris transdifferentiate to lens cells and eventually form a new lens in about a month 2,3. This property of regeneration is never exhibited by the ventral iris cells. The regeneration potential of the iris cells can be studied by making transplants of the in vitro cultured IPE cells. For the culture, the dorsal and ventral iris cells are first isolated from the eye and cultured separately for a time period of 2 weeks (Figure 1). These cultured cells are reaggregated and implanted back to the newt eye. Past studies have shown that the dorsal reaggregate maintains its lens forming capacity whereas the ventral aggregate does not form a lens, recapitulating, thus the in vivo process (Figure 2) 4,5. This system of determining regeneration potential of dorsal and ventral iris cells is very useful in studying the role of genes and proteins involved in lens regeneration.

In newt, the lens regenerates always from the dorsal iris by transdifferentiation of the iris pigmented epithelial cells (IPEs). Here we describe a procedure to culture dorsal and ventral newt IPE cells and their implantation to the newt eye. The implanted cells are then studied by tissue sectioning and immunohistochemistry.

Salamanders like newt and axolotl possess the ability to regenerate many of its lost body parts such as limbs, the tail with spinal cord, eye, brain, ...

Laser Ablation of the Zebrafish Pronephros to Study Renal Epithelial Regeneration

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is characterized by high mortality rates from deterioration of renal function over a period of hours or days that culminates in renal failure1. AKI can be caused by a number of factors including ischemia, drug-based toxicity, or obstructive injury1. This results in an inability to maintain fluid and electrolyte homeostasis. While AKI has been observed for decades, effective clinical therapies have yet to be developed. Intriguingly, some patients with AKI recover renal functions over time, a mysterious phenomenon that has been only rudimentally characterized1,2. Research using mammalian models of AKI has shown that ischemic or nephrotoxin-injured kidneys experience epithelial cell death in nephron tubules1,2, the functional units of the kidney that are made up of a series of specialized regions (segments) of epithelial cell types3. Within nephrons, epithelial cell death is highest in proximal tubule cells. There is evidence that suggests cell destruction is followed by dedifferentiation, proliferation, and migration of surrounding epithelial cells, which can regenerate the nephron entirely1,2. However, there are many unanswered questions about the mechanisms of renal epithelial regeneration, ranging from the signals that modulate these events to reasons for the wide variation of abilities among humans to regenerate injured kidneys.
The larval zebrafish provides an excellent model to study kidney epithelial regeneration as its pronephric kidney is comprised of nephrons that are conserved with higher vertebrates including mammals4,5. The nephrons of zebrafish larvae can be visualized with fluorescence techniques because of the relative transparency of the young zebrafish6. This provides a unique opportunity to image cell and molecular changes in real-time, in contrast to mammalian models where nephrons are inaccessible because the kidneys are structurally complex systems internalized within the animal. Recent studies have employed the aminoglycoside gentamicin as a toxic causative agent for study of AKI and subsequent renal failure: gentamicin and other antibiotics have been shown to cause AKI in humans, and researchers have formulated methods to use this agent to trigger kidney damage in zebrafish7,8. However, the effects of aminoglycoside toxicity in zebrafish larvae are catastrophic and lethal, which presents a difficulty when studying epithelial regeneration and function over time. Our method presents the use of targeted cell ablation as a novel tool for the study of epithelial injury in zebrafish. Laser ablation gives researchers the ability to induce cell death in a limited population of cells. Varying areas of cells can be targeted based on morphological location, function, or even expression of a particular cellular phenotype. Thus, laser ablation will increase the specificity of what researchers can study, and can be a powerful new approach to shed light on the mechanisms of renal epithelial regeneration. This protocol can be broadly applied to target cell populations in other organs in the zebrafish embryo to study injury and regeneration in any number of contexts of interest.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) in humans is a common clinical problem caused by damage to the epithelial cells that comprise kidney nephrons, and AKI is associated with high mortality rates of 50-70%1. Following epithelial cell destruction, nephrons have a limited ability to regenerate, though the mechanisms and limitations that guide this phenomenon remain poorly understood. In this video article, we describe our technique for targeted laser ablation of kidney nephron cells in the zebrafish embryo kidney, or pronephros. Our new method can be used to complement nephrotoxicity-induced models of AKI and gain a high-resolution understanding of the cell and molecular alterations that are associated with epithelial regeneration in the kidney nephron.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is characterized by high mortality rates from deterioration of renal function over a period of hours or days that culminates in ...

Chromatin Isolation by RNA Purification (ChIRP)

Long noncoding RNAs are key regulators of chromatin states for important biological processes such as dosage compensation, imprinting, and developmental gene expression 1,2,3,4,5,6,7. The recent discovery of thousands of lncRNAs in association with specific chromatin modification complexes, such as Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) that mediates histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3), suggests broad roles for numerous lncRNAs in managing chromatin states in a gene-specific fashion 8,9. While some lncRNAs are thought to work in cis on neighboring genes, other lncRNAs work in trans to regulate distantly located genes. For instance, Drosophila lncRNAs roX1 and roX2 bind numerous regions on the X chromosome of male cells, and are critical for dosage compensation 10,11. However, the exact locations of their binding sites are not known at high resolution. Similarly, human lncRNA HOTAIR can affect PRC2 occupancy on hundreds of genes genome-wide 3,12,13, but how specificity is achieved is unclear. LncRNAs can also serve as modular scaffolds to recruit the assembly of multiple protein complexes. The classic trans-acting RNA scaffold is the TERC RNA that serves as the template and scaffold for the telomerase complex 14; HOTAIR can also serve as a scaffold for PRC2 and a H3K4 demethylase complex 13.
Prior studies mapping RNA occupancy at chromatin have revealed substantial insights 15,16, but only at a single gene locus at a time. The occupancy sites of most lncRNAs are not known, and the roles of lncRNAs in chromatin regulation have been mostly inferred from the indirect effects of lncRNA perturbation. Just as chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by microarray or deep sequencing (ChIP-chip or ChIP-seq, respectively) has greatly improved our understanding of protein-DNA interactions on a genomic scale, here we illustrate a recently published strategy to map long RNA occupancy genome-wide at high resolution 17. This method, Chromatin Isolation by RNA Purification (ChIRP) (Figure 1), is based on affinity capture of target lncRNA:chromatin complex by tiling antisense-oligos, which then generates a map of genomic binding sites at a resolution of several hundred bases with high sensitivity and low background. ChIRP is applicable to many lncRNAs because the design of affinity-probes is straightforward given the RNA sequence and requires no knowledge of the RNA's structure or functional domains.

Chromatin Isolation by RNA Purification ChIRP

ChIRP is a novel and rapid technique to map genomic binding sites of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). The method takes advantage of the specificity of anti-sense tiling oligonucleotides to allow the enumeration of lncRNA-bound genomic sites.

Long noncoding RNAs are key regulators of chromatin states for important biological processes such as dosage compensation, imprinting, and developmental ...

Rapid Genetic Analysis of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Signaling During Hair Regeneration

Hair follicle morphogenesis, a complex process requiring interaction between epithelia-derived keratinocytes and the underlying mesenchyme, is an attractive model system to study organ development and tissue-specific signaling. Although hair follicle development is genetically tractable, fast and reproducible analysis of factors essential for this process remains a challenge. Here we describe a procedure to generate targeted overexpression or shRNA-mediated knockdown of factors using lentivirus in a tissue-specific manner. Using a modified version of a hair regeneration model 5, 6, 11, we can achieve robust gain- or loss-of-function analysis in primary mouse keratinocytes or dermal cells to facilitate study of epithelial-mesenchymal signaling pathways that lead to hair follicle morphogenesis. We describe how to isolate fresh primary mouse keratinocytes and dermal cells, which contain dermal papilla cells and their precursors, deliver lentivirus containing either shRNA or cDNA to one of the cell populations, and combine the cells to generate fully formed hair follicles on the backs of nude mice. This approach allows analysis of tissue-specific factors required to generate hair follicles within three weeks and provides a fast and convenient companion to existing genetic models.

Tissue-specific analysis of a hair follicle regeneration model using lentivirus to mediate gain- or loss-of-function.

Hair follicle morphogenesis, a complex process requiring interaction between epithelia-derived keratinocytes and the underlying mesenchyme, is an ...

Measuring Glutathione-induced Feeding Response in Hydra

Hydra is among the most primitive organisms possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey. The movement of prey organisms causes mechanosensory discharge of the stinging cells called nematocysts from hydra, which are inserted into the prey. The feeding response in hydra, which includes curling of the tentacles to bring the prey towards the mouth, opening of the mouth and consequent engulfing of the prey, is triggered by GSH present in the fluid released from the injured prey. To be able to identify the molecular mechanism of the feeding response in hydra which is unknown to date, it is necessary to establish an assay to measure the feeding response. Here, we describe a simple method for the quantitation of the feeding response in which the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra is measured and the ratio of such distance before and after the addition of GSH is determined. The ratio, called the relative tentacle spread, was found to give a measure of the feeding response. This assay was validated using a starvation model in which starved hydra show an enhanced feeding response in comparison with daily fed hydra.

Here we describe a simple assay for the quantification of the feeding response in hydra induced by the reduced form of glutathione. This assay relies on measuring the distance between the apical end of the tentacle and mouth of hydra.

Hydra is among the most primitive organisms possessing a nervous system and chemosensation for detecting reduced glutathione (GSH) for capturing the prey. ...

In Vitro and In Vivo Approaches to Determine Intestinal Epithelial Cell Permeability

The intestinal barrier defends against pathogenic microorganism and microbial toxin. Its function is regulated by tight junction permeability and epithelial cell integrity, and disruption of the intestinal barrier function contributes to progression of gastrointestinal and systemic disease. Two simple methods are described here to measure the permeability of intestinal epithelium. In vitro, Caco-2BBe cells are plated in tissue culture wells as a monolayer and transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) can be measured by an epithelial (volt/ohm) meter. This method is convincing because of its user-friendly operation and repeatability. In vivo, mice are gavaged with 4 kDa fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran, and the FITC-dextran concentrations are measured in collected serum samples from mice to determine the epithelial permeability. Oral gavage provides an accurate dose, and therefore is the preferred method to measure the intestinal permeability in vivo. Taken together, these two methods can measure the permeability of the intestinal epithelium in vitro and in vivo, and hence be used to study the connection between diseases and barrier function.

In Vitro and In Vivo Approaches to Determine Intestinal Epithelial Cell Permeability

Two methods are presented here to determine intestinal barrier function. An epithelial meter (volt/ohm) is used for measurements of transepithelial electrical resistance of cultured epithelia directly in tissue culture wells. In mice, the FITC-dextran gavage method is used to determine the intestinal permeability in vivo.

The intestinal barrier defends against pathogenic microorganism and microbial toxin. Its function is regulated by tight junction permeability and ...

Dosimetry for Cell Irradiation using Orthovoltage (40-300 kV) X-Ray Facilities

The importance of dosimetry protocols and standards for radiobiological studies is self-evident. Several protocols have been proposed for dose determination using low energy X-ray facilities, but depending on the irradiation configurations, samples, materials or beam quality, it is sometimes difficult to know which protocol is the most appropriate to employ. We, therefore, propose a dosimetry protocol for cell irradiations using low energy X-ray facility. The aim of this method is to perform the dose estimation at the level of the cell monolayer to make it as close as possible to real cell irradiation conditions. The different steps of the protocol are as follows: determination of the irradiation parameters (high voltage, intensity, cell container etc.), determination of the beam quality index (high voltage-half value layer couple), dose rate measurement with ionization chamber calibrated in air kerma conditions, quantification of the attenuation and scattering of the cell culture medium with EBT3 radiochromic films, and determination of the dose rate at the cellular level. This methodology must be performed for each new cell irradiation configuration as the modification of only one parameter can strongly impact the real dose deposition at the level of the cell monolayer, particularly involving low energy X-rays.

Dosimetry for Cell Irradiation using Orthovoltage 40-300 kV X-Ray Facilities

This document describes a new dosimetry protocol for cell irradiations using low energy X-ray equipment. Measurements are performed in conditions simulating real cell irradiation conditions as much as possible.